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Each row is one question a systematic review asked: who, what, compared with what, and which outcome, with the effect it found and how certain that is. Words match anywhere in the field.
3,601 questions in 252 reviews · Pregnancy and Childbirth
current versionsNo studies 726 · 20.2%Ungraded 421 · 11.7%Very low 828 · 23%Low 993 · 27.6%Moderate 486 · 13.5%High 147 · 4.1%
Ungraded means an effect was reported without a GRADE rating; it is not a gap. No studies means the review found nothing to answer the question. The six categories are a display order, not a score.
| Question | Effect | Evidence | Status / GRADE |
|---|---|---|---|
(4.1) PGE2 gel vs PGE2 tablet (all women) Caesarean section · patients with induction of labour at term Vaginal prostaglandin (PGE2 and PGF2a) for induction of labour at term (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.91 [0.72, 1.17] | 6 studies · 1046 participants | High |
(4.1) PGE2 gel vs PGE2 tablet (all women) Serious maternal morbidity or death · patients with induction of labour at term Vaginal prostaglandin (PGE2 and PGF2a) for induction of labour at term (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.33 [0.01, 8.09] | 1 study · 200 participants | Ungraded |
Chlorhexidine (vaginal wash or gel/cream) vs placebo or no treatment Early onset GBS disease (sepsis and/or meningitis within the first seven days of life)) · women with vaginal or rectal colonization with GBS during labour and their preterm/term infants Vaginal chlorhexidine during labour to prevent early‐onset neonatal group B streptococcal infection (2014) · Cochrane | RR 2.32 [0.34, 15.63] | 2 studies · 987 participants | Very low |
Chlorhexidine (vaginal wash or gel/cream) vs placebo or no treatment GBS pneumonia within the first seven days of life · women with vaginal or rectal colonization with GBS during labour and their preterm/term infants Vaginal chlorhexidine during labour to prevent early‐onset neonatal group B streptococcal infection (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.35 [0.01, 8.6] | 2 studies · 987 participants | Very low |
Chlorhexidine (vaginal wash or gel/cream) vs placebo or no treatment Neonatal colonization with GBS within the first seven days of life · women with vaginal or rectal colonization with GBS during labour and their preterm/term infants Vaginal chlorhexidine during labour to prevent early‐onset neonatal group B streptococcal infection (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.64 [0.4, 1.01] | 3 studies · 328 participants | Very low |
Chlorhexidine (vaginal wash or gel/cream) vs placebo or no treatment Neonatal mortality due to early‐onset GBS infection · women with vaginal or rectal colonization with GBS during labour and their preterm/term infants Vaginal chlorhexidine during labour to prevent early‐onset neonatal group B streptococcal infection (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 190 participants | Ungraded |
Chlorhexidine (vaginal wash or gel/cream) vs placebo or no treatment Adverse (mild) effects in the mother · women with vaginal or rectal colonization with GBS during labour and their preterm/term infants Vaginal chlorhexidine during labour to prevent early‐onset neonatal group B streptococcal infection (2014) · Cochrane | RR 8.5 [1.6, 45.28] | 3 studies · 1066 participants | Very low |
Chlorhexidine (vaginal wash or gel/cream) vs placebo or no treatment Adverse (mild) effects in the neonate · women with vaginal or rectal colonization with GBS during labour and their preterm/term infants Vaginal chlorhexidine during labour to prevent early‐onset neonatal group B streptococcal infection (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 3 studies · 1066 participants | Ungraded |
Chlorhexidine vaginal wash vs placebo Chorioamnionitis Clinical findings · Pregnant women with a gestational age greater than 28 weeks, considered to be in labour receiving chlorhexidine… Vaginal chlorhexidine during labour for preventing maternal and neonatal infections (excluding Group B… (2014) · Cochrane | RR 1.1 [0.86, 1.42] | 3 studies · 3012 participants | Moderate |
Chlorhexidine vaginal wash vs placebo Postpartum endometritis Clinical findings · Pregnant women with a gestational age greater than 28 weeks, considered to be in labour receiving chlorhexidine… Vaginal chlorhexidine during labour for preventing maternal and neonatal infections (excluding Group B… (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.83 [0.61, 1.13] | 3 studies · 3012 participants | Moderate |
Chlorhexidine vaginal wash vs placebo Neonatal sepsis Clinical findings · Pregnant women with a gestational age greater than 28 weeks, considered to be in labour receiving chlorhexidine… Vaginal chlorhexidine during labour for preventing maternal and neonatal infections (excluding Group B… (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.75 [0.17, 3.35] | 3 studies · 2987 participants | Low |
Chlorhexidine vaginal wash vs placebo Blood culture confirming neonatal sepsis Clinical findings and confirmation by laboratory · Pregnant women with a gestational age greater than 28 weeks, considered to be in labour receiving chlorhexidine… Vaginal chlorhexidine during labour for preventing maternal and neonatal infections (excluding Group B… (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.75 [0.17, 3.35] | 2 studies · 2077 participants | Low |
Antibiotic prophylaxis vs no treatment Infection rate at 2 weeks postpartum ‐ perineal wound infection in third‐ or fourth‐degree tear · Women with third‐ and fourth‐degree perineal tear during vaginal birth Antibiotic prophylaxis for third‐ and fourth‐degree perineal tear during vaginal birth (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.34 [0.12, 0.96] | 1 study · 107 participants | Moderate |
Antibiotic prophylaxis vs no treatment Infection rate at 6 weeks postpartum ‐ perineal wound infection in third‐ or fourth‐degree tear · Women with third‐ and fourth‐degree perineal tear during vaginal birth Antibiotic prophylaxis for third‐ and fourth‐degree perineal tear during vaginal birth (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.38 [0.13, 1.09] | 1 study · 128 participants | Low |
Antibiotic prophylaxis vs no treatment Fever or puerperal febrile morbidity · Women with third‐ and fourth‐degree perineal tear during vaginal birth Antibiotic prophylaxis for third‐ and fourth‐degree perineal tear during vaginal birth (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 0 studies · 0 participants | Ungraded |
Early initiation of epidural analgesia vs Late initiation Caesarean section · pregnant women (at term) requesting epidural analgesia in labour (regardless of whether the labour was spontaneous or… Early versus late initiation of epidural analgesia for labour (2014) · Cochrane | RR 1.02 [0.96, 1.08] | 9 studies · 15499 participants | High |
Early initiation of epidural analgesia vs Late initiation Instrumental delivery · pregnant women (at term) requesting epidural analgesia in labour (regardless of whether the labour was spontaneous or… Early versus late initiation of epidural analgesia for labour (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.93 [0.86, 1.01] | 8 studies · 15379 participants | High |
Early initiation of epidural analgesia vs Late initiation Duration of 1st stage of labour · pregnant women (at term) requesting epidural analgesia in labour (regardless of whether the labour was spontaneous or… Early versus late initiation of epidural analgesia for labour (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 7 studies · 14384 participants | Low |
Early initiation of epidural analgesia vs Late initiation Duration of 2nd stage of labour · pregnant women (at term) requesting epidural analgesia in labour (regardless of whether the labour was spontaneous or… Early versus late initiation of epidural analgesia for labour (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 8 studies · 14982 participants | High |
Early initiation of epidural analgesia vs Late initiation Apgar score <7 at 5 min · pregnant women (at term) requesting epidural analgesia in labour (regardless of whether the labour was spontaneous or… Early versus late initiation of epidural analgesia for labour (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.96 [0.69, 1.33] | 7 studies · 14924 participants | High |
Early initiation of epidural analgesia vs Late initiation Umbilical artery pH · pregnant women (at term) requesting epidural analgesia in labour (regardless of whether the labour was spontaneous or… Early versus late initiation of epidural analgesia for labour (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 4 studies · 14004 participants | High |
Early initiation of epidural analgesia vs Late initiation Umblical vein pH · pregnant women (at term) requesting epidural analgesia in labour (regardless of whether the labour was spontaneous or… Early versus late initiation of epidural analgesia for labour (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 4 studies · 14004 participants | Moderate |
Glycerine gel dressing vs usual care Nipple pain Nipple trauma: midwife assessed based on scale of 1‐3 with: 1 = better/resolved, 2 = no change, and 3 = worse · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 63 participants | Low |
Lanolin vs expressed breast milk Nipple pain Women's reports of 'absence of irritation' · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | RR 1.01 [0.93, 1.09] | 1 study · 152 participants | Low |
Lanolin vs expressed breast milk Nipple pain Women's reports of 'absence of irritation' · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | RR 1.56 [1.05, 2.32] | 1 study · 152 participants | Low |
Lanolin vs expressed breast milk Nipple pain Women's reports of 'absence of irritation' · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | RR 1.58 [0.27, 9.2] | 1 study · 152 participants | Low |
Lanolin vs all‐purpose nipple ointment Nipple pain Short Form McGill Pain Questionnaire scale 0‐45 · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 150 participants | Moderate |
Lanolin vs all‐purpose nipple ointment Nipple pain Present Pain Intensity scale 0‐5 · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 150 participants | Moderate |
Lanolin vs all‐purpose nipple ointment Nipple pain Present Pain Intensity scale 0‐10 · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 150 participants | Moderate |
Breast shells with lanolin vs usual care Nipple pain 5‐point Likert scale with established test‐re‐test reliability · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 61 participants | Low |
Glycerine gel dressing vs breast shells with lanolin Nipple pain 5‐point Likert scale with established test‐re‐test reliability · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 64 participants | Low |
Lanolin vs no intervention (control group) Nipple pain 5‐point verbal descriptor scale · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.97 [0.91, 1.04] | 1 study · 147 participants | Low |
Lanolin vs no intervention (control group) Nipple pain 5‐point verbal descriptor scale · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | RR 1.3 [0.63, 2.66] | 2 studies · 312 participants | Low |
Lanolin vs no intervention (control group) Nipple pain 5‐point verbal descriptor scale · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.85 [0.63, 1.14] | 2 studies · 297 participants | Low |
Expressed breast milk vs no intervention (control group) Nipple pain 5‐point verbal descriptor scale · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.96 [0.9, 1.03] | 1 study · 151 participants | Low |
Expressed breast milk vs no intervention (control group) Nipple pain 5‐point verbal descriptor scale · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | RR 1.17 [0.71, 1.92] | 1 study · 151 participants | Low |
Expressed breast milk vs no intervention (control group) Nipple pain 5‐point verbal descriptor scale · breastfeeding women with sore nipples Interventions for treating painful nipples among breastfeeding women (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.62 [0.11, 3.63] | 1 study · 151 participants | Low |
Antibiotics vs no antibiotics Maternal wound infection · Women undergoing cesarean section. Antibiotic prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis for preventing infection after cesarean section (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.4 [0.35, 0.46] | 82 studies · 14407 participants | Moderate |
Antibiotics vs no antibiotics Maternal endometritis · Women undergoing cesarean section. Antibiotic prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis for preventing infection after cesarean section (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.38 [0.34, 0.42] | 83 studies · 13548 participants | Moderate |
Antibiotics vs no antibiotics Maternal serious infectious complications · Women undergoing cesarean section. Antibiotic prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis for preventing infection after cesarean section (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.31 [0.2, 0.49] | 32 studies · 6159 participants | Moderate |
Antibiotics vs no antibiotics Adverse effects on infant · Women undergoing cesarean section. Antibiotic prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis for preventing infection after cesarean section (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 0 studies · 0 participants | Ungraded |
Antibiotics vs no antibiotics Maternal wound infection · Women undergoing elective cesarean section Antibiotic prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis for preventing infection after cesarean section (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.62 [0.47, 0.82] | 17 studies · 3537 participants | Moderate |
Antibiotics vs no antibiotics Maternal endometritis · Women undergoing elective cesarean section Antibiotic prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis for preventing infection after cesarean section (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.38 [0.24, 0.61] | 15 studies · 2502 participants | Moderate |
Antibiotics vs no antibiotics Maternal serious infectious complications · Women undergoing elective cesarean section Antibiotic prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis for preventing infection after cesarean section (2014) · Cochrane | RR 1.01 [0.04, 24.21] | 4 studies · 545 participants | Low |
Antibiotics vs no antibiotics Adverse effects on infant · Women undergoing elective cesarean section Antibiotic prophylaxis versus no prophylaxis for preventing infection after cesarean section (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 0 studies · 0 participants | Ungraded |
Antibiotic vs placebo Neonatal sepsis · Women with meconium‐stained amniotic fluid in labour, gestational age more than 24 weeks Antibiotics for meconium‐stained amniotic fluid in labour for preventing maternal and neonatal infections (2014) · Cochrane | RR 1 [0.21, 4.76] | 1 study · 120 participants | Low |
Antibiotic vs placebo Chorioamnionitis · Women with meconium‐stained amniotic fluid in labour, gestational age more than 24 weeks Antibiotics for meconium‐stained amniotic fluid in labour for preventing maternal and neonatal infections (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.36 [0.21, 0.62] | 2 studies · 362 participants | Moderate |
Antibiotic vs placebo Postpartum endometritis · Women with meconium‐stained amniotic fluid in labour, gestational age more than 24 weeks Antibiotics for meconium‐stained amniotic fluid in labour for preventing maternal and neonatal infections (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.5 [0.18, 1.38] | 1 study · 120 participants | Low |
Antibiotic vs placebo Mortality and morbidity prior to discharge (Neonatal intensive care admissions) · Women with meconium‐stained amniotic fluid in labour, gestational age more than 24 weeks Antibiotics for meconium‐stained amniotic fluid in labour for preventing maternal and neonatal infections (2014) · Cochrane | RR 0.83 [0.39, 1.78] | 1 study · 120 participants | Low |
Antibiotic vs placebo Side effects of treatment · Women with meconium‐stained amniotic fluid in labour, gestational age more than 24 weeks Antibiotics for meconium‐stained amniotic fluid in labour for preventing maternal and neonatal infections (2014) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |