Findings

What do systematic reviews say?

1,378 questions · 2,146 findings · 145 reviews

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No studies found 167 · 7.8%GRADE not reported 1,674 · 78%Very low 148 · 6.9%Low 113 · 5.3%Moderate 40 · 1.9%High 4 · 0.2%

Intervention not reported

Dental caries prevalence in permanent teeth (cavitated lesions) · Children aged 11-13 years in Latin America and the Caribbean

About 58% of 11-13 year-old children in Latin America and the Caribbean had dental caries in permanent teeth (95% CI 54-61%); certainty not graded.

1 finding from 1 review

Does the Decline in Caries Prevalence of Latin American and Caribbean Children Continue in the New Century? Evidence… 2016 All outcomes
Studies with data collected after 2000 (21st century) · Latin America and the Caribbean; population/community-based epidemiological surveys
Prevalence 0.58 [0.54, 0.61]
63 studies · 95188 participants
GRADE not reported

Fluoridated milk vs Non-fluoridated milk

Requirement for general anaesthesia due to dental procedures for caries · general population

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

1 finding from 1 review

Fluoridated milk for preventing dental caries 2015 · Cochrane All outcomes
No evidence found. (No information was reported by the included study.)
0 studies
No studies found

Referral letter based on the common-sense model (CSM) plus dental information guide (DIG) vs Referral letter based on the common-sense model (CSM) alone

Proportion of children with treated/untreated caries (receipt of dental care) · School children, primary schools in the USA

It is very uncertain whether referral letter based on the common-sense model (CSM) plus dental… changes proportion of children with treated/untreated caries (receipt of… compared with referral letter based on the common-sense model (CSM) alone (very low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

School dental screening programmes for oral health 2022 · Cochrane All outcomes
mean 8 months
OR 1.30 [0.85, 1.99]
1 study · 411 participants
Very low

Referral letter based on the common-sense model (CSM) of self-regulation plus dental information guide (DIG) vs Standard referral letter

Proportion of children with treated/untreated caries (receipt of dental care) · School children, primary schools in the USA

It is very uncertain whether referral letter based on the common-sense model (CSM) of… changes proportion of children with treated/untreated caries (receipt of… compared with standard referral letter (very low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

School dental screening programmes for oral health 2022 · Cochrane All outcomes
mean 8 months
OR 1.26 [0.82, 1.93]
1 study · 395 participants
Very low

Electronic cigarette use vs Non-smokers (non-users)

Dental caries and cariogenic bacteria (Streptococcus mutans, Lactobacilli) · Adult e-cigarette (ENDS) users (general oral health; predominantly natural dentition)

E-cigarette use is associated with more cariogenic bacteria and increased dental caries risk compared with non-smokers (narrative synthesis; ungraded).

1 finding from 1 review

An Umbrella Review of E-Cigarettes' Impact on Oral Microbiota and Biofilm Buildup. 2025 All outcomes
Oral health / dental care (community and clinical samples)
Narrative synthesis: e-cigarette use linked to increased cariogenic bacteria (S. mutans, Lactobacilli) and worsening dental caries, with flavored e-liquids noted as a caries risk factor (Zieba, Camoni, Yang…
3 studies
GRADE not reported

Not applicable (single-group prevalence) vs Not applicable (single-group prevalence)

Dental caries prevalence · Children (<18 years) with intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD) in India

Dental caries affects about 64% of children with IDD in India (pooled prevalence 0.64, 95% CI 0.45-0.79; high heterogeneity; ungraded).

1 finding from 1 review

Oral health status of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities in India: a systematic review and… 2024 All outcomes
India (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana); schools/institutions and community · Overall
Prevalence 64 [45, 79]
7 studies · 1066 participants
GRADE not reported

Slum residence vs Non-slum urban setting

Dental caries · Adult residents of slums and non-slum urban settings of LMICs

Slum residents had non-significantly higher odds of caries than non-slum residents (OR 1.21, 95% CI 0.94-1.56; single study); ungraded.

1 finding from 1 review

Systematic review of oral health in slums and non-slum urban settings of Low and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs):… 2024 All outcomes
Cross-sectional · Urban slums and non-slum/general-urban settings, LMICs · Slum vs non-slum urban (Osuh 2022, Nigeria)
OR 1.21 [0.94, 1.56]
1 study · 1357 participants
GRADE not reported

Probiotics vs placebo or control

Dental caries in children · Adolescents (12-18 years) without background systemic disease

In a subgroup analysis, probiotics reduced the number of caries in adolescents (MD -0.60, 95%CI -0.92 to -0.28; p-interaction=0.02); not GRADE-rated.

1 finding from 1 review

Efficacy of Probiotic Consumption on Oral Outcomes in Children and/or Adolescents: A Meta-Analysis. 2024 All outcomes
Healthy children and/or adolescents (<18 years) without systemic disease; RCTs from multiple countries (India, Thailand, Spain, Australia, New Zealand, Sweden, Poland, Colombia, Saudi Arabia); mostly school/community and clinic settings · Population: adolescents (vs children; p-interaction=0.02)
MD -0.60 [-0.92, -0.28]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

Slum / urban-disadvantaged setting vs Non-slum urban / general-urban / national population

Caries experience (mean DMFT) · Adult residents of slums and non-slum urban settings of LMICs

Mean DMFT ranges from 0.26 to 16.6 across LMIC urban/slum populations; ungraded.

1 finding from 1 review

Systematic review of oral health in slums and non-slum urban settings of Low and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs):… 2024 All outcomes
Cross-sectional · Urban slums and non-slum/general-urban settings, LMICs
Mean DMFT (usually reported at population level) ranged from 0.26 to 16.6 across studies; the Missing component was typically highest and the Filled component lowest, reflecting limited access to dental care.
12 studies
GRADE not reported

Disability (developmental, intellectual, or sensory) vs Persons without disabilities

Dental caries prevalence and severity · Persons with disabilities (children and adults with autism, Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, hearing impairment, or multiple disabilities)…

Dental caries prevalence and severity are high among persons with disabilities in Saudi Arabia (60% to over 80%), and the one comparative autism study reported significantly higher caries than controls; synthesized narratively (ungraded).

1 finding from 1 review

Disabilities and Disparities in Oral Health-Related Quality of Life: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis in Saudi… 2024 All outcomes
Cross-sectional · Autism centres and dental/hospital settings in Saudi Arabia (Riyadh, Jeddah)
Narrative synthesis (no pooled estimate). High dental caries burden among PWDs: caries prevalence 60% to over 80% (abstract). Alkahtani 2019 (hearing-impaired adults, single-arm): caries prevalence 82.2%, treatment…
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

Slum / urban-disadvantaged setting vs Non-slum urban / general-urban / national population

Dental caries prevalence · Adult residents of slums and non-slum urban settings of LMICs

Dental caries prevalence in LMIC urban/slum populations ranges widely (13%-76%); not GRADE-rated (narrative synthesis).

1 finding from 1 review

Systematic review of oral health in slums and non-slum urban settings of Low and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs):… 2024 All outcomes
Cross-sectional · Urban slums and non-slum/general-urban settings, LMICs
Prevalence of dental caries varied across age, gender and socioeconomic class, ranging from 13% (Nigeria) to 76% (Central India); prevalence >50% reported in India, Brazil, Malaysia and Rwanda; generally higher in…
14 studies
GRADE not reported

Probiotics vs placebo or control

Dental caries in children · Children and/or adolescents (<18 years) without background systemic disease

Probiotics probably make little to no difference to the number of dental caries versus control (MD -0.24 carious pieces, 95%CI -0.72 to 0.23; low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Efficacy of Probiotic Consumption on Oral Outcomes in Children and/or Adolescents: A Meta-Analysis. 2024 All outcomes
follow-up: mean 26 months · Healthy children and/or adolescents (<18 years) without systemic disease; RCTs from multiple countries (India, Thailand, Spain, Australia, New Zealand, Sweden, Poland, Colombia, Saudi Arabia); mostly school/community and clinic settings · Overall (all presentations pooled)
MD -0.24 [-0.72, 0.23]
6 studies · 1049 participants
Low

Strategies to integrate oral health into primary care (e.g., training/education of non-dental primary care professionals, policy/financing and health-insurance changes, colocation of dental and medical services, interprofessional and community-health-worker collaboration, teledentistry, integrated oral health assessment tools, school-based activities)

Dental caries estimates · People receiving or providing primary care; all ages, ability types, and locations

Seven studies measured change in dental caries estimates.

1 finding from 1 review

Strategies to integrate oral health into primary care: a systematic review. 2023 All outcomes
Primary care, community, schools, and aged-care facilities
6 of 7 studies reported improved dental caries outcomes; 1 (Vichayanrat 2012) reported no change
7 studies
GRADE not reported

Combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) vs Monotherapy or dual antiretroviral therapy

Dental caries prevalence and severity · Children and adolescents (<18 years) living with HIV (CLWH)

No significant difference in dental caries/severity between ART regimens (very low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Impact of Antiretroviral Therapy on Oral Health among Children Living with HIV: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. 2022 All outcomes
Hospitals and AIDS outpatient centres in India, Brazil, and several Asian countries
No significant difference in dental caries/severity between CLWH on cART and those on monotherapy or dual therapy (no numeric estimate reported in the text); 2 study(ies).
2 studies
Very low

Primary school-based interventions (one or more of: school health policy, oral health education, healthy school environment, access to oral health services, community involvement) vs usual practice

Dental caries · Primary school children (aged 3-16 years) attending primary school in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)

Among children aged 6-8 years, DMFT scores were significantly reduced (SMD -0.11); subgroup not separately GRADE-rated.

8 findings from 1 review

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Age 6-8 years
SMD -0.11 [-0.17, -0.04]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · <=3 intervention activities
SMD -0.58 [-1.62, 0.45]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
<2 years · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention duration <2 years
SMD 0.01 [-0.16, 0.18]
3 studies
GRADE not reported

Show 5 more findings

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Age 8-15 years
SMD -0.41 [-0.50, -0.32]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
>=2 years · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention duration >=2 years
SMD -0.49 [-0.79, -0.19]
4 studies
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean)
SMD -0.33 [-0.56, -0.10]
7 studies · 6766 participants
Very low
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean)
SMD -0.26 [-0.70, 0.18]
5 studies · 3506 participants
Very low
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · >3 intervention activities
SMD 0.02 [-0.13, 0.17]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

Primary school-based interventions (one or more of: school health policy, oral health education, healthy school environment, access to oral health services, community involvement) vs usual practice

Annual increment in DMFS (D3) · Primary school children (aged 3-16 years) attending primary school in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)

Oral-health-education interventions significantly reduced net increment in DMFS (SMD -1.05); no significant subgroup difference vs other interventions (P=0.74).

5 findings from 1 review

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention type: oral health education
SMD -1.05 [-2.03, -0.08]
3 studies
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · WHO health-promoting-schools framework
SMD -0.57 [-1.56, 0.42]
2 studies
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Non-WHO-framework interventions
SMD -1.88 [-3.15, -0.60]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

Show 2 more findings

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention type: other (daily tooth brushing)
SMD -1.23 [-1.46, -1.00]
1 study
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean)
SMD -1.09 [-1.91, -0.27]
4 studies · 3755 participants
Very low

Primary school-based interventions (one or more of: school health policy, oral health education, healthy school environment, access to oral health services, community involvement) vs usual practice

Dental caries prevalence measured by dmft or DMFT/S score greater than one · Primary school children (aged 3-16 years) attending primary school in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)

School-based interventions may reduce the prevalence of dental caries (RR 0.70, favouring intervention), but the certainty of evidence is very low.

3 findings from 1 review

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean)
RR 0.70 [0.53, 0.94]
4 studies · 2968 participants
Very low
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
<2 years · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention duration <2 years
RR 0.95 [0.75, 1.21]
2 studies
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
>=2 years · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention duration >=2 years
RR 0.58 [0.40, 0.84]
2 studies
GRADE not reported

Food and nonalcoholic beverage marketing (exposure) vs No, less, or less powerful food marketing

Dental caries · Children and adolescents (general population, aged under 20 years)

Evidence on food marketing and dental caries is very uncertain (very low certainty); 1 of 2 studies found an association.

1 finding from 1 review

Association of Food and Nonalcoholic Beverage Marketing With Children and Adolescents' Eating Behaviors and Health: A… 2022 All outcomes
Predominantly high-income countries · Nonrandomized studies
Vote counting: 1 of 2 studies (50%; 95% CI, 9%-90.5%) showed an association of public health harm; 1 moderate-quality study found a clear association with caries and 1 high-quality study found no association.
2 studies
Very low

Living with HIV and undergoing antiretroviral therapy (ART/HAART) vs Healthy HIV-negative controls

Dental caries prevalence · Children or adolescents

In permanent dentition, CLWH on ART had higher caries prevalence than healthy controls (OR 2.49, 95% CI 1.86 to 3.32; single study).

3 findings from 1 review

Oral Health Status of Children and Adolescents Living with HIV Undergoing Antiretroviral Therapy: A Systematic Review… 2022 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (case-control; single time point) · HIV pediatric/ART clinics, AIDS centers, and hospitals in Brazil, India, Saudi Arabia, and West Africa (Cote d'Ivoire, Mali, Senegal) · Permanent dentition (DMFT > 0)
OR 2.49 [1.86, 3.32]
1 study · 724 participants
GRADE not reported
Oral Health Status of Children and Adolescents Living with HIV Undergoing Antiretroviral Therapy: A Systematic Review… 2022 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (case-control; single time point) · HIV pediatric/ART clinics, AIDS centers, and hospitals in Brazil, India, Saudi Arabia, and West Africa (Cote d'Ivoire, Mali, Senegal)
OR 2.70 [2.01, 3.62]
2 studies · 1028 participants
GRADE not reported
Oral Health Status of Children and Adolescents Living with HIV Undergoing Antiretroviral Therapy: A Systematic Review… 2022 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (case-control; single time point) · HIV pediatric/ART clinics, AIDS centers, and hospitals in Brazil, India, Saudi Arabia, and West Africa (Cote d'Ivoire, Mali, Senegal) · Primary dentition (dmft > 0)
OR 1.93 [1.34, 2.79]
1 study · 564 participants
GRADE not reported

Responsive complementary feeding (RCF) vs Other models of complementary feeding

Dental caries · Healthy children aged 6–24 months in Western industrialized countries

No eligible trials explored caregivers' feeding practices during complementary feeding and dental caries.

1 finding from 1 review

Complementary Feeding Caregivers' Practices and Growth, Risk of Overweight/Obesity, and Other Non-Communicable… 2022 All outcomes
Outpatient
no estimate extracted
0 studies
No studies found