What do systematic reviews say?

Food and nonalcoholic beverage marketing (exposure) vs No, less, or less powerful food marketing

Evidence on food marketing and body weight is very uncertain (very low certainty); a single study found no association.

• Association of Food and Nonalcoholic Beverage Marketing With Children and Adolescents' Eating Behaviors and Health: A… 2022 All outcomes

  Predominantly high-income countries
  A single moderate-quality observational study found no significant association between food marketing and body weight/BMI.
  1 study
  Very low

Food and nonalcoholic beverage marketing (exposure) vs No, less, or less powerful food marketing

No eligible studies were found.

• Association of Food and Nonalcoholic Beverage Marketing With Children and Adolescents' Eating Behaviors and Health: A… 2022 All outcomes

  Predominantly high-income countries
  No studies were found with relevant data on diet-related noncommunicable diseases or validated surrogate indicators.
  0 studies
  No studies found

Integrated management of childhood illness strategy vs usual care

Integrated management of childhood illness strategy showed no clear difference in mortality compared with routine care (low certainty).

• Integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) strategy for children under five 2016 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  Risk ratio 0.87 [0.68, 1.1]
  1 study · 5090 participants
  Low

Integrated management of childhood illness strategy vs usual care

Integrated management of childhood illness strategy showed no clear difference in nutritional status compared with routine care (low certainty).

• Integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) strategy for children under five 2016 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  Risk ratio 0.94 [0.84, 1.06]
  2 studies · 5242 participants
  Low

Integrated management of childhood illness strategy vs usual care

• Integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) strategy for children under five 2016 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  2 studies · 727 participants
  Very low

Integrated management of childhood illness strategy vs usual care

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

• Integrated management of childhood illness (IMCI) strategy for children under five 2016 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  Studies not reported
  No studies found

Absence (previous removal or agenesis) of asymptomatic disease-free impacted wisdom teeth vs Retention (conservative management) of asymptomatic disease-free impacted wisdom teeth

It is very uncertain whether absence (previous removal or agenesis) of asymptomatic disease-free… changes caries affecting the (distal) adjacent second molar compared with presence (retention) of asymptomatic disease-free impacted wisdom… (very low certainty).

• Surgical removal versus retention for the management of asymptomatic disease‐free impacted wisdom teeth 2020 · Cochrane All outcomes

  Follow-up 3 to over 25 years · Soft tissue impaction
  RR 1.20 [0.17, 9.10]
  1 study · 416 participants
  Very low
• Surgical removal versus retention for the management of asymptomatic disease‐free impacted wisdom teeth 2020 · Cochrane All outcomes

  Follow-up 3 to over 25 years · Bony impaction
  RR 0.69 [0.27, 1.82]
  1 study · 416 participants
  Very low

Absence (previous removal or agenesis) of asymptomatic disease-free impacted wisdom teeth vs Retention (conservative management) of asymptomatic disease-free impacted wisdom teeth

It is very uncertain whether absence (previous removal or agenesis) of asymptomatic disease-free… changes periodontitis (distal alveolar bone loss, adjacent second molar) compared with presence (retention) of asymptomatic disease-free impacted wisdom… (very low certainty).

• Surgical removal versus retention for the management of asymptomatic disease‐free impacted wisdom teeth 2020 · Cochrane All outcomes

  Follow-up 3 to over 25 years · Bony impaction
  RR 0.32 [0.19, 0.54]
  1 study · 416 participants
  Very low
• Surgical removal versus retention for the management of asymptomatic disease‐free impacted wisdom teeth 2020 · Cochrane All outcomes

  Follow-up 3 to over 25 years · Soft tissue impaction
  RR 0.11 [0.06, 0.22]
  1 study · 416 participants
  Very low

Absence (previous removal or agenesis) of asymptomatic disease-free impacted wisdom teeth vs Retention (conservative management) of asymptomatic disease-free impacted wisdom teeth

It is very uncertain whether absence (previous removal or agenesis) of asymptomatic disease-free… changes periodontitis (distal probing depth greater than 4 mm, adjacent… compared with presence (retention) of asymptomatic disease-free impacted wisdom… (very low certainty).

• Surgical removal versus retention for the management of asymptomatic disease‐free impacted wisdom teeth 2020 · Cochrane All outcomes

  Follow-up 3 to over 25 years · Soft tissue impaction
  RR 0.15 [0.07, 0.34]
  1 study · 416 participants
  Very low
• Surgical removal versus retention for the management of asymptomatic disease‐free impacted wisdom teeth 2020 · Cochrane All outcomes

  Follow-up 3 to over 25 years · Bony impaction
  RR 0.63 [0.37, 1.04]
  1 study · 416 participants
  Very low

Gamified oral health interventions (mobile apps, serious games, augmented reality, game-based education) vs Conventional or traditional oral health education, or non-gamified interventions (comparator varied; several studies were single-arm/uncontrolled)

Gamified interventions appear to increase children's engagement and adherence to oral hygiene routines, but the evidence is narrative and ungraded.

• The Application of Gamification in Children's Oral Health Management: Systematic Review. 2025 All outcomes

  Post-intervention (predominantly short-term; long-term follow-up in a minority of studies) · School-based settings, specialized dental clinics, and home-based environments
  The regular use rate was significantly higher (72.4%) in the gamified mobile health app group than in the nongamified intervention group (48.3%) [Zolfaghari 2021]; quiz-based challenges in mobile apps encouraged higher…
  Studies not reported
  GRADE not reported

Health education vs usual care

Health education may leads to higher proportion of children who received DTP3/Penta 3 by 1 year of age compared with routine care (low certainty).

• Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 1.36 [1.15, 1.62]
  6 studies · 4375 participants
  Low

Monetary incentives vs usual care

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

• Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  Studies not reported
  No studies found

Digital register vs usual care

Digital register showed no clear difference in proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 by 1 year of age compared with routine care (moderate certainty).

• Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 0.98 [0.89, 1.09]
  2 studies · 328 participants
  Moderate

Phone call/SMS with/without combination with monetary incentives vs usual care

Phone call/SMS with/without combination with monetary incentives showed no clear difference in proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 by 1 year of age… compared with routine care (low certainty).

• Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 1.12 [1, 1.25]
  6 studies · 3869 participants
  Low
• Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 1.01 [0.98, 1.03]
  1 study · 766 participants
  Low

Wearable reminders vs usual care

Wearable reminders showed no clear difference in proportion of children who received DTP3 or Penta 3 by 1 year of age compared with routine care (moderate certainty).

• Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 1.02 [0.97, 1.07]
  2 studies · 1567 participants
  Moderate

Training of health providers vs usual care

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

• Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  Studies not reported
  No studies found

Home visit vs usual care

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

• Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  Studies not reported
  No studies found

Immunisation outreach vs usual care

It is very uncertain whether immunisation outreach changes proportion of children who received DTP3/Penta 3 by 1 year of age compared with routine care (very low certainty).

• Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 1.32 [1.11, 1.56]
  1 study · 541 participants
  Very low

Integration of immunisation with other health services vs usual care

Integration of immunisation with other health services may leads to higher proportion of children who received DTP3/Penta 3 by 1 year of age compared with routine care (low certainty).

• Interventions for improving coverage of childhood immunisation in low‐ and middle‐income countries 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 1.27 [1.17, 1.38]
  1 study · 2192 participants
  Low

Intervention not reported

The intervention may leads to higher WPPSI‐III FSIQ at 3.5 to 4 years of age Composite scores have a mean… (low certainty).

• Early erythropoiesis‐stimulating agents in preterm or low birth weight infants 2020 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  MD 11.9 [0.76, 23.04]
  1 study · 53 participants
  Low