Findings

What do systematic reviews say?

747 questions · 815 findings · 144 reviews

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No studies found 154 · 18.9%GRADE not reported 147 · 18%Very low 164 · 20.1%Low 199 · 24.4%Moderate 121 · 14.8%High 30 · 3.7%

Higher national income (GNI per capita) vs Lower national income (GNI categories: middle <=$15,000 / high $15,001-25,000 / very high >$25,000)

Odds of higher caries (DMFT) category · 12-year-old children across European countries (national/regional epidemiological surveys, 2011-2022)

Higher national income was strongly associated with lower odds of poor oral health (OR 0.10, 95% CI 0.03 to 0.37; about 90% lower odds); not GRADE-rated.

1 finding from 1 review

Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries; ordinal logistic regression of DMFT category on socioeconomic indicators (adjusted) · Higher vs lower income (ordinal logistic regression, adjusted)
OR 0.10 [0.03, 0.37]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

Western/Northern Europe (UN M49 region) vs Eastern/Southern Europe (UN M49 geographical categorization)

Caries experience (mean DMFT) · 12-year-old children across European countries (national/regional epidemiological surveys, 2011-2022)

Mean DMFT is lowest in West Europe (0.88) and North Europe (1.34) and highest in East Europe (2.76) and South Europe (2.61) (Figure 3); not GRADE-rated.

4 findings from 1 review

Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries grouped by UN M49 geographical categorization; test of group differences Q_b(3)=66.57, p<0.01 · North Europe
MEAN 1.34 [0.62, 2.06]
8 studies
GRADE not reported
Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries grouped by UN M49 geographical categorization; test of group differences Q_b(3)=66.57, p<0.01 · East Europe
MEAN 2.76 [2.44, 3.08]
9 studies
GRADE not reported
Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries grouped by UN M49 geographical categorization; test of group differences Q_b(3)=66.57, p<0.01 · West Europe
MEAN 0.88 [0.54, 1.22]
5 studies
GRADE not reported

Show 1 more finding

Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries grouped by UN M49 geographical categorization; test of group differences Q_b(3)=66.57, p<0.01 · South Europe
MEAN 2.61 [1.60, 3.62]
12 studies
GRADE not reported

AI algorithms (predominantly CNN/deep learning) as index test vs Dental expert / visual-tactile clinical assessment (reference standard)

Sensitivity · Patients undergoing dental caries detection on dental images (teeth/surfaces across imaging modalities)

AI algorithms have high pooled sensitivity (0.85) for detecting dental caries; ungraded, with very high heterogeneity (I2>95%) and evidence of publication bias.

1 finding from 1 review

Examining the diagnostic accuracy of artificial intelligence for detecting dental caries across a range of imaging… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional diagnostic accuracy (index test vs reference standard) · Dental imaging: intraoral photographs, periapical, bitewing, panoramic radiographs, CBCT, near-infrared transillumination · Overall (all imaging modalities pooled)
Sensitivity 0.85 [0.83, 0.93]
20 studies · 29423 participants
GRADE not reported

Higher national income (GNI per capita) vs Lower national income (GNI categories: middle <=$15,000 / high $15,001-25,000 / very high >$25,000)

Caries experience (mean DMFT) · 12-year-old children across European countries (national/regional epidemiological surveys, 2011-2022)

Mean DMFT in 12-year-olds rises as national income falls: 0.90 (very high income), 2.38 (high income), 3.30 (middle income) (Figure 2); not GRADE-rated.

3 findings from 1 review

Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries stratified by World Bank GNI per capita (modified 3-category); test of group differences Q_b(2)=51.35, p<0.01 · Very high income (GNI >$25,000)
MEAN 0.90 [0.66, 1.15]
14 studies
GRADE not reported
Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries stratified by World Bank GNI per capita (modified 3-category); test of group differences Q_b(2)=51.35, p<0.01 · High income (GNI $15,001-25,000)
MEAN 2.38 [1.78, 2.97]
8 studies
GRADE not reported
Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries stratified by World Bank GNI per capita (modified 3-category); test of group differences Q_b(2)=51.35, p<0.01 · Middle income (GNI <=$15,000)
MEAN 3.30 [2.57, 4.03]
12 studies
GRADE not reported

Very high Human Development Index (HDI >=0.800) vs High Human Development Index (HDI 0.700-0.799)

Caries experience (mean DMFT) · 12-year-old children across European countries (national/regional epidemiological surveys, 2011-2022)

Mean DMFT was higher in high-HDI (3.41) than very-high-HDI (1.73) countries (ANOVA p<.01); descriptive country-level means only, not meta-analyzed or GRADE-rated.

2 findings from 1 review

Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries categorized by HDI (high 0.700-0.799 vs very high >=0.800); not meta-analyzed (descriptive means + one-way ANOVA) · High HDI (0.700-0.799)
MEAN 3.41
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported
Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries categorized by HDI (high 0.700-0.799 vs very high >=0.800); not meta-analyzed (descriptive means + one-way ANOVA) · Very high HDI (>=0.800)
MEAN 1.73
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

All European countries pooled (overall) vs None (overall pooled prevalence)

Caries experience (mean DMFT) · 12-year-old children across European countries (national/regional epidemiological surveys, 2011-2022)

Across European countries the overall pooled mean DMFT in 12-year-olds was 2.10 (95% CI 1.63 to 2.57), with very high between-country heterogeneity (I2=100%); not GRADE-rated.

1 finding from 1 review

Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European region (36 countries; 493,360 twelve-year-olds from 61 national/regional reports) · Overall
MEAN 2.10 [1.63, 2.57]
34 studies · 493360 participants
GRADE not reported

AI algorithms (predominantly CNN/deep learning) as index test vs Dental expert / visual-tactile clinical assessment (reference standard)

Specificity · Patients undergoing dental caries detection on dental images (teeth/surfaces across imaging modalities)

AI algorithms have high pooled specificity (0.90) for detecting dental caries; ungraded, with very high heterogeneity (I2>95%).

1 finding from 1 review

Examining the diagnostic accuracy of artificial intelligence for detecting dental caries across a range of imaging… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional diagnostic accuracy (index test vs reference standard) · Dental imaging: intraoral photographs, periapical, bitewing, panoramic radiographs, CBCT, near-infrared transillumination · Overall (all imaging modalities pooled)
Specificity 0.90 [0.85, 0.95]
20 studies · 29423 participants
GRADE not reported

Lower unemployment rate vs Higher unemployment rate (low <=5% / medium >5-10% / high >10%)

Odds of higher caries (DMFT) category · 12-year-old children across European countries (national/regional epidemiological surveys, 2011-2022)

Unemployment rate was not independently associated with DMFT category in the adjusted model (OR 0.99, 95% CI 0.44 to 2.23); not GRADE-rated.

1 finding from 1 review

Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries; ordinal logistic regression of DMFT category on socioeconomic indicators (adjusted) · Unemployment rate (ordinal logistic regression, adjusted)
OR 0.99 [0.44, 2.23]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

AI algorithms (predominantly CNN/deep learning) as index test vs Dental expert / visual-tactile clinical assessment (reference standard)

Area under the summary ROC curve · Patients undergoing dental caries detection on dental images (teeth/surfaces across imaging modalities)

The area under the summary ROC curve for AI caries detection is 0.86, indicating high overall diagnostic accuracy; ungraded.

1 finding from 1 review

Examining the diagnostic accuracy of artificial intelligence for detecting dental caries across a range of imaging… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional diagnostic accuracy (index test vs reference standard) · Dental imaging: intraoral photographs, periapical, bitewing, panoramic radiographs, CBCT, near-infrared transillumination · Overall (all imaging modalities pooled)
AUC 0.86
20 studies · 29423 participants
GRADE not reported

Western/Northern Europe (UN M49 region) vs Eastern/Southern Europe (UN M49 geographical categorization)

Odds of higher caries (DMFT) category · 12-year-old children across European countries (national/regional epidemiological surveys, 2011-2022)

In the adjusted ordinal model geographical location was not independently significant for DMFT category (OR 0.57, 95% CI 0.24 to 1.35); not GRADE-rated.

1 finding from 1 review

Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries; ordinal logistic regression of DMFT category on socioeconomic indicators (adjusted) · Geographical location (ordinal logistic regression, adjusted)
OR 0.57 [0.24, 1.35]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

Very high Human Development Index (HDI >=0.800) vs High Human Development Index (HDI 0.700-0.799)

Odds of higher caries (DMFT) category · 12-year-old children across European countries (national/regional epidemiological surveys, 2011-2022)

HDI was not independently associated with DMFT category in the adjusted model (OR 1.82, 95% CI 0.32 to 10.47); not GRADE-rated.

1 finding from 1 review

Caries status in 12-year-old children, geographical location and socioeconomic conditions across European countries: A… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional (survey data 2011-2022) · European countries; ordinal logistic regression of DMFT category on socioeconomic indicators (adjusted) · Human Development Index (ordinal logistic regression, adjusted)
OR 1.82 [0.32, 10.47]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

AI algorithms (predominantly CNN/deep learning) as index test vs Dental expert / visual-tactile clinical assessment (reference standard)

Positive likelihood ratio · Patients undergoing dental caries detection on dental images (teeth/surfaces across imaging modalities)

A positive AI test raises caries probability substantially (LR+ 10.44; positive post-test probability 79%); ungraded.

1 finding from 1 review

Examining the diagnostic accuracy of artificial intelligence for detecting dental caries across a range of imaging… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional diagnostic accuracy (index test vs reference standard) · Dental imaging: intraoral photographs, periapical, bitewing, panoramic radiographs, CBCT, near-infrared transillumination · Overall (all imaging modalities pooled)
LR+ 10.443 [7.505, 14.531]
20 studies · 29423 participants
GRADE not reported

AI algorithms (predominantly CNN/deep learning) as index test vs Dental expert / visual-tactile clinical assessment (reference standard)

Log diagnostic odds ratio · Patients undergoing dental caries detection on dental images (teeth/surfaces across imaging modalities)

AI algorithms show strong pooled discriminative accuracy for dental caries (log DOR 4.37; DOR 70.9); ungraded.

1 finding from 1 review

Examining the diagnostic accuracy of artificial intelligence for detecting dental caries across a range of imaging… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional diagnostic accuracy (index test vs reference standard) · Dental imaging: intraoral photographs, periapical, bitewing, panoramic radiographs, CBCT, near-infrared transillumination · Overall (all imaging modalities pooled)
Log DOR 4.37 [3.16, 6.27]
20 studies · 29423 participants
GRADE not reported

AI algorithms (predominantly CNN/deep learning) as index test vs Dental expert / visual-tactile clinical assessment (reference standard)

Negative likelihood ratio · Patients undergoing dental caries detection on dental images (teeth/surfaces across imaging modalities)

A negative AI test lowers caries probability substantially (LR- 0.17; negative post-test probability 6%); ungraded.

1 finding from 1 review

Examining the diagnostic accuracy of artificial intelligence for detecting dental caries across a range of imaging… 2025 All outcomes
Cross-sectional diagnostic accuracy (index test vs reference standard) · Dental imaging: intraoral photographs, periapical, bitewing, panoramic radiographs, CBCT, near-infrared transillumination · Overall (all imaging modalities pooled)
LR- 0.168 [0.138, 0.205]
20 studies · 29423 participants
GRADE not reported

Labour induction vs expectant management

Caesarean section · women with term or near term (> 37 weeks' gestation) with suspected fetal macrosomia

Induction of labour showed no clear difference in caesarean section compared with expectant management (moderate certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Induction of labour at or near term for suspected fetal macrosomia 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 0.91 [0.76, 1.09]
4 studies · 1190 participants
Moderate

Labour induction vs expectant management

Instrumental delivery · women with term or near term (> 37 weeks' gestation) with suspected fetal macrosomia

Induction of labour showed no clear difference in instrumental delivery compared with expectant management (low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Induction of labour at or near term for suspected fetal macrosomia 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 0.86 [0.65, 1.13]
4 studies · 1190 participants
Low

Labour induction vs expectant management

Shoulder dystocia · women with term or near term (> 37 weeks' gestation) with suspected fetal macrosomia

Induction of labour probably leads to lower shoulder dystocia compared with expectant management (moderate certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Induction of labour at or near term for suspected fetal macrosomia 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 0.6 [0.37, 0.98]
4 studies · 1190 participants
Moderate

Labour induction vs expectant management

Brachial plexus injury · women with term or near term (> 37 weeks' gestation) with suspected fetal macrosomia

Induction of labour showed no clear difference in brachial plexus injury compared with expectant management (low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Induction of labour at or near term for suspected fetal macrosomia 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 0.21 [0.01, 4.28]
4 studies · 1190 participants
Low

Labour induction vs expectant management

Fracture · women with term or near term (> 37 weeks' gestation) with suspected fetal macrosomia

Induction of labour leads to lower fracture (any) compared with expectant management (high certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Induction of labour at or near term for suspected fetal macrosomia 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 0.2 [0.05, 0.79]
4 studies · 1190 participants
High

Labour induction vs expectant management

Low Apgar score · women with term or near term (> 37 weeks' gestation) with suspected fetal macrosomia

Induction of labour showed no clear difference in low Apgar score (5 minutes) compared with expectant management (low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Induction of labour at or near term for suspected fetal macrosomia 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 1.51 [0.25, 9.02]
2 studies · 858 participants
Low