What do systematic reviews say?

Intervention not reported

• Antibiotics for preventing lower respiratory tract infections in high‐risk children aged 12 years and under 2015 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  2 studies · 106 participants
  Moderate

Intervention not reported

• Antibiotics for preventing lower respiratory tract infections in high‐risk children aged 12 years and under 2015 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  4 studies · 418 participants
  Moderate

Positive expiratory pressure plus routine treatment vs routine treatment alone

• Chest physiotherapy for pneumonia in adults 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  1 study · 98 participants
  Very low

Positive expiratory pressure plus routine treatment vs routine treatment alone

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

• Chest physiotherapy for pneumonia in adults 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  Studies not reported
  No studies found

Positive expiratory pressure plus routine treatment vs routine treatment alone

• Chest physiotherapy for pneumonia in adults 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  1 study · 98 participants
  Very low

Positive expiratory pressure plus routine treatment vs routine treatment alone

• Chest physiotherapy for pneumonia in adults 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  1 study · 98 participants
  Very low

Positive expiratory pressure plus routine treatment vs routine treatment alone

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

• Chest physiotherapy for pneumonia in adults 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  Studies not reported
  No studies found

Positive expiratory pressure plus routine treatment vs routine treatment alone

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

• Chest physiotherapy for pneumonia in adults 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  Studies not reported
  No studies found

Positive expiratory pressure plus routine treatment vs routine treatment alone

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

• Chest physiotherapy for pneumonia in adults 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  Studies not reported
  No studies found

Summary of findings table ‐ Delayed antibiotics vs no antibiotics

Summary of findings table ‐ Delayed antibiotics probably leads to higher patient satisfaction: delayed (prescription collection) versus no… compared with no antibiotics (moderate certainty).

• Immediate versus delayed versus no antibiotics for respiratory infections 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  OR 1.45 [1.08, 1.96]
  5 studies · 1523 participants
  Moderate

NSAIDs vs placebo

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

• Paracetamol (acetaminophen) or non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs, alone or combined, for pain relief in acute… 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  Studies not reported
  No studies found

NSAIDs vs paracetamol

It is very uncertain whether NSAIDs changes delayed antibiotic prescriptions compared with paracetamol (very low certainty).

• Paracetamol (acetaminophen) or non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs, alone or combined, for pain relief in acute… 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 1.32 [0.74, 2.35]
  1 study · 53 participants
  Very low

Paracetamol vs placebo

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

• Paracetamol (acetaminophen) or non‐steroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs, alone or combined, for pain relief in acute… 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  Studies not reported
  No studies found

Heliox vs placebo or no treatment

Heliox showed no clear difference in proportion of children re‐presenting for medical care for ongoing… compared with placebo or no treatment (low certainty).

• Heliox for croup in children 2021 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  OR 0.95 [0.12, 7.41]
  1 study · 47 participants
  Low

Heliox vs oxygen 30%

The review found no eligible studies for this question.

• Heliox for croup in children 2021 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  Studies not reported
  No studies found

Intervention not reported

The intervention may leads to higher short‐term neurological sequelae other than hearing loss defined as… (low certainty).

• Non‐corticosteroid adjuvant therapies for acute bacterial meningitis 2021 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 1.99 [1.4, 2.81]
  2 studies · 1096 participants
  Low

Intervention not reported

The intervention may leads to higher long‐term neurological sequelae other than hearing loss defined as… (low certainty).

• Non‐corticosteroid adjuvant therapies for acute bacterial meningitis 2021 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 2.32 [1.34, 4.04]
  2 studies · 901 participants
  Low

Provider‐ or system‐based interventions vs no intervention or another intervention

• Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community 2018 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  3 studies · 2183 participants
  Moderate

Written information for patients (or parents of child patients) vs usual care

Written information for patients (or parents of child patients) may leads to lower antibiotics prescribed by clinicians compared with usual care (low certainty).

• Written information for patients (or parents of child patients) to reduce the use of antibiotics for acute upper… 2016 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 0.47 [0.28, 0.78]
  2 studies · 188131 participants
  Low

Shared decision‐making (all components) vs usual care

Shared decision making probably leads to lower antibiotics prescribed or dispensed (6 weeks or less) compared with usual care (moderate certainty).

• Interventions to facilitate shared decision making to address antibiotic use for acute respiratory infections in… 2015 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RR 0.61 [0.55, 0.68]
  8 studies · 10172 participants
  Moderate