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Each row is one question a systematic review asked: who, what, compared with what, and which outcome, with the effect it found and how certain that is. Words match anywhere in the field.
2,353 questions in 210 reviews · Neonatal
current versionsNo studies 432 · 18.4%Ungraded 99 · 4.2%Very low 609 · 25.9%Low 737 · 31.3%Moderate 385 · 16.4%High 91 · 3.9%
Ungraded means an effect was reported without a GRADE rating; it is not a gap. No studies means the review found nothing to answer the question. The six categories are a display order, not a score.
| Question | Effect | Evidence | Status / GRADE |
|---|---|---|---|
Summary of findings table ‐ Phenobarbital vs levetiracetam Proportion of infants who achieve seizure control after maximal loading dose of ASM · clinically diagnosed neonatal seizures Anti‐seizure medications for neonates with seizures (2023) · Cochrane | RR 0.58 [0.47, 0.72] | 3 studies · 260 participants | Very low |
Continuous infusion vs bolus administration Pain · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | MD 0 | 2 studies · 133 participants | Very low |
'As needed' administration (e.g. based on pain scales) vs 'as scheduled' administration (e.g. a predefined time interval) Major neurodevelopmental disability in children aged 18 to 24 months or three to five years old ‐ not reported · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
'As needed' administration (e.g. based on pain scales) vs 'as scheduled' administration (e.g. a predefined time interval) Cognitive and educational outcomes in children more than five years old ‐ not reported · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
'As needed' administration (e.g. based on pain scales) vs 'as scheduled' administration (e.g. a predefined time interval) Severe (defined as stage 3 or greater) retinopathy of prematurity ‐ not reported · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
'As needed' administration (e.g. based on pain scales) vs 'as scheduled' administration (e.g. a predefined time interval) Severe (grade 3 or greater) intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) on cranial ultrasound ‐ not reported · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Continuous infusion vs bolus administration Pain · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | MD 0.07 | 2 studies · 133 participants | Very low |
Continuous infusion vs bolus administration All‐cause mortality during initial hospitalization ‐ not reported · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Continuous infusion vs bolus administration Major neurodevelopmental disability in children aged 18 to 24 months or three to five years old ‐ not reported · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Continuous infusion vs bolus administration Cognitive and educational outcomes in children more than five years old ‐ not reported · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Continuous infusion vs bolus administration Severe (defined as stage 3 or greater) retinopathy of prematurity ‐ not reported · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Continuous infusion vs bolus administration Severe (grade 3 or greater) intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) on cranial ultrasound ‐ not reported · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
'As needed' administration (e.g. based on pain scales) vs 'as scheduled' administration (e.g. a predefined time interval) Pain · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
'As needed' administration (e.g. based on pain scales) vs 'as scheduled' administration (e.g. a predefined time interval) All‐cause mortality during initial hospitalization ‐ not reported · postoperative pain in neonates Systemic opioid regimens for postoperative pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Opioids vs no treatment/placebo Pain, assessed using the PIPP/PIPP‐R pain scale, ranging from 0 to 21 and 0 to 18 in preterm infants < 28 weeks' gestational age and full‐term infants, respectively, during procedure · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 3 studies · 199 participants | Moderate |
Opioids vs no treatment/placebo Parent satisfaction with care provided in the NICU (as measured by a validated instrument/tool)—not reported · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Opioids vs oral sweet solution or non‐pharmacological intervention Pain, assessed using the CRIES pain scale, ranging from 0 to 10, during the procedure— opioids versus facilitated tucking · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 100 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs oral sweet solution or non‐pharmacological intervention Pain, assessed using the CRIES pain scale, ranging from 0 to 10, during the procedure— opioids versus sensorial stimulation · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 100 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs oral sweet solution or non‐pharmacological intervention Any harms · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Opioids vs oral sweet solution or non‐pharmacological intervention Episodes of bradycardia—not reported · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Opioids vs oral sweet solution or non‐pharmacological intervention Episodes of apnea—not reported · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Opioids vs oral sweet solution or non‐pharmacological intervention Hypotension—not reported · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Opioids vs oral sweet solution or non‐pharmacological intervention Parent satisfaction with care provided in the NICU—not reported · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Opioids vs other analgesics Pain, assessed using the PIPP/PIPP‐R pain scale, ranging from 0 to 21 and 0 to 18 in preterm infants < 28 weeks gestational age and full‐term infants, respectively, during procedure · procedural pain in neonates Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 2 studies · 124 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs other analgesics Pain, assessed using the PIPP/PIPP‐R pain scale up to 30 min after procedure · procedural pain in neonates Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 12 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs no treatment/placebo Pain, assessed using the PIPP/PIPP‐R pain scale up to 30 min after procedure · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 2 studies · 123 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs other analgesics Pain, assessed using the PIPP/PIPP‐R pain scale 1 to 2 hours after procedure · procedural pain in neonates Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 12 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs other analgesics Any harms · procedural pain in neonates Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Opioids vs other analgesics Episodes of apnea—during the procedure · procedural pain in neonates Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | RR 3.27 [0.85, 12.58] | 2 studies · 124 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs other analgesics Episodes of apnea—after the procedure · procedural pain in neonates Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | RR 2.71 [0.11, 64.96] | 2 studies · 124 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs other analgesics Episodes of bradycardia—not reported · procedural pain in neonates Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Opioids vs other analgesics Hypotension · procedural pain in neonates Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | RR 1.34 [0.32, 5.59] | 3 studies · 204 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs other analgesics Parent satisfaction with care provided in the NICU—not reported · procedural pain in neonates Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Opioids vs no treatment/placebo Pain, assessed using the PIPP/PIPP‐R pain scale 1 to 2 hours after procedure · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 2 studies · 54 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs no treatment/placebo Pain, assessed using the DAN pain scale, ranging from 0 to 21, 1 to 2 hours after procedure · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 42 participants | Low |
Opioids vs no treatment/placebo Pain, assessed using the NIPS, ranging from 0 to 7, during procedure · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 2 studies · 102 participants | Low |
Opioids vs no treatment/placebo Any harms ‐ severe apnea requiring resuscitation · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | RR 7.44 [0.42, 132.95] | 1 study · 31 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs no treatment/placebo Episodes of bradycardia · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | RR 3.19 [0.14, 72.69] | 3 studies · 172 participants | Very low |
Opioids vs no treatment/placebo Episodes of apnea · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | RR 3.15 [1.08, 9.16] | 3 studies · 199 participants | Low |
Opioids vs no treatment/placebo Hypotension · neonates exposed to procedural pain Opioids for procedural pain in neonates (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 2 studies · 88 participants | Very low |
Bubble vs ventilator or Infant Flow Driver nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) Treatment failure · preterm infants receiving nasal CPAP Bubble devices versus other pressure sources for nasal continuous positive airway pressure in preterm infants (2023) · Cochrane | RR 0.76 [0.6, 0.95] | 13 studies · 1230 participants | Low |
Bubble vs ventilator or Infant Flow Driver nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) All‐cause mortality before hospital discharge · preterm infants receiving nasal CPAP Bubble devices versus other pressure sources for nasal continuous positive airway pressure in preterm infants (2023) · Cochrane | RR 0.93 [0.64, 1.36] | 10 studies · 1189 participants | Low |
Bubble vs ventilator or Infant Flow Driver nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) Neurodevelopmental impairment · preterm infants receiving nasal CPAP Bubble devices versus other pressure sources for nasal continuous positive airway pressure in preterm infants (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Bubble vs ventilator or Infant Flow Driver nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) Pneumothorax · preterm infants receiving nasal CPAP Bubble devices versus other pressure sources for nasal continuous positive airway pressure in preterm infants (2023) · Cochrane | RR 0.73 [0.4, 1.34] | 14 studies · 1340 participants | Low |
Bubble vs ventilator or Infant Flow Driver nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) Moderate‐severe nasal injury · preterm infants receiving nasal CPAP Bubble devices versus other pressure sources for nasal continuous positive airway pressure in preterm infants (2023) · Cochrane | RR 2.29 [1.37, 3.82] | 8 studies · 753 participants | Moderate |
Bubble vs ventilator or Infant Flow Driver nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) Bronchopulmonary dysplasia · preterm infants receiving nasal CPAP Bubble devices versus other pressure sources for nasal continuous positive airway pressure in preterm infants (2023) · Cochrane | RR 0.76 [0.53, 1.1] | 7 studies · 603 participants | Low |
Prebiotics vs control Necrotising enterocolitis (before hospital discharge) · very preterm or very low birth weight infants Prebiotics to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in very preterm or very low birth weight infants (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 7 studies · 686 participants | Low |
Prebiotics vs control Mortality (all‐cause before hospital discharge) · very preterm or very low birth weight infants Prebiotics to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in very preterm or very low birth weight infants (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 7 studies · 686 participants | Low |
Prebiotics vs control Late‐onset invasive infection (before hospital discharge) · very preterm or very low birth weight infants Prebiotics to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in very preterm or very low birth weight infants (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 7 studies · 686 participants | Low |
Prebiotics vs control Bayley Scales of Infant Development Mental Development Index < 85 (assessed beyond infancy) · very preterm or very low birth weight infants Prebiotics to prevent necrotising enterocolitis in very preterm or very low birth weight infants (2023) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 76 participants | Very low |