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Each row is one question a systematic review asked: who, what, compared with what, and which outcome, with the effect it found and how certain that is. Words match anywhere in the field.
1,080 questions in 109 reviews · Acute Respiratory Infections
current versionsNo studies 132 · 12.2%Ungraded 90 · 8.3%Very low 169 · 15.6%Low 306 · 28.3%Moderate 287 · 26.6%High 96 · 8.9%
Ungraded means an effect was reported without a GRADE rating; it is not a gap. No studies means the review found nothing to answer the question. The six categories are a display order, not a score.
| Question | Effect | Evidence | Status / GRADE |
|---|---|---|---|
Probiotic vs placebo Difference in proportion of children with other infections · children up to age 18 years Probiotics for preventing acute otitis media in children (2019) · Cochrane | RR 0.75 [0.65, 0.87] | 11 studies · 3610 participants | Moderate |
Inactivated parenteral influenza vaccine vs placebo or 'do nothing' Influenza assessed by laboratory confirmation Timing of assessment: most studies tested vaccines over a single influenza season · healthy adults Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy adults (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.41 [0.36, 0.47] | 25 studies · 71221 participants | Moderate |
Inactivated parenteral influenza vaccine vs placebo or 'do nothing' Influenza‐like illness assessed by subjective report Timing of assessment: most studies tested vaccines over a single influenza season · healthy adults Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy adults (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.84 [0.75, 0.95] | 16 studies · 25795 participants | Moderate |
Inactivated parenteral influenza vaccine vs placebo or 'do nothing' Hospitalisations Timing of assessment: single influenza season · healthy adults Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy adults (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.96 [0.85, 1.08] | 3 studies · 11924 participants | Low |
Inactivated parenteral influenza vaccine vs placebo or 'do nothing' Time off work Timing of assessment: single influenza season · healthy adults Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy adults (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 4 studies · 3726 participants | Low |
Inactivated parenteral influenza vaccine vs placebo or 'do nothing' Fever assessed by subjective report Timing of assessment: single influenza season · healthy adults Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy adults (2018) · Cochrane | RR 1.55 [1.26, 1.91] | 13 studies · 23850 participants | High |
Inactivated parenteral influenza vaccine vs placebo or 'do nothing' Nausea or vomiting assessed by subjective report Timing of assessment: single influenza season · healthy adults Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy adults (2018) · Cochrane | RR 1.8 [0.65, 5.04] | 4 studies · 6315 participants | Low |
Influenza vaccine vs placebo Influenza · people aged over 65 years Vaccines for preventing influenza in the elderly (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.42 [0.27, 0.66] | 3 studies · 2217 participants | Low |
Influenza vaccine vs placebo Influenza‐like illness · people aged over 65 years Vaccines for preventing influenza in the elderly (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.59 [0.47, 0.73] | 4 studies · 6894 participants | Moderate |
Influenza vaccine vs placebo Pneumonia · people aged over 65 years Vaccines for preventing influenza in the elderly (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 1 study · 699 participants | Very low |
Influenza vaccine vs placebo Hospitalisations ‐ not reported · people aged over 65 years Vaccines for preventing influenza in the elderly (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Influenza vaccine vs placebo All deaths · people aged over 65 years Vaccines for preventing influenza in the elderly (2018) · Cochrane | RR 1.02 [0.11, 9.72] | 1 study · 699 participants | Very low |
Influenza vaccine vs placebo Fever · people aged over 65 years Vaccines for preventing influenza in the elderly (2018) · Cochrane | RR 1.57 [0.92, 2.71] | 3 studies · 2519 participants | Moderate |
Influenza vaccine vs placebo Nausea · people aged over 65 years Vaccines for preventing influenza in the elderly (2018) · Cochrane | RR 1.75 [0.74, 4.12] | 1 study · 672 participants | Low |
Live attenuated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Influenza assessed by laboratory confirmation · healthy, community‐dwelling children younger than 16 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.22 [0.11, 0.41] | 7 studies · 7718 participants | Moderate |
Inactivated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Influenza‐like illness assessed by subjective report · healthy, community‐dwelling children older than 2 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.72 [0.65, 0.79] | 4 studies · 19044 participants | Moderate |
Inactivated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Otitis media assessed by clinical confirmation (inspection of ear and symptoms) · healthy, community‐dwelling children older than 2 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | RR 1.15 [0.95, 1.4] | 3 studies · 884 participants | Moderate |
Inactivated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Absence from school · healthy, community‐dwelling children older than 2 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.46 [0.17, 1.22] | 1 study · 254 participants | Very low |
Inactivated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Number of parents having to take off work during · healthy, community‐dwelling children older than 2 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Inactivated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Hospitalisations ‐ not reported · healthy, community‐dwelling children older than 2 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Inactivated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Fever ‐ not reported · healthy, community‐dwelling children older than 2 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Inactivated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Nausea ‐ not reported · healthy, community‐dwelling children older than 2 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Live attenuated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Influenza‐like illness assessed by subjective report · healthy, community‐dwelling children younger than 16 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.69 [0.6, 0.8] | 7 studies · 124606 participants | Low |
Live attenuated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Otitis media assessed by clinical confirmation (inspection of ear and symptoms) · healthy, community‐dwelling children younger than 16 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.98 [0.95, 1.01] | 1 study · 1784 participants | Moderate |
Live attenuated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Number of children with time off from school during · healthy, community‐dwelling children younger than 16 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.51 [0.22, 1.19] | 1 study · 296 participants | Very low |
Live attenuated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Number of parents having to take off work during · healthy, community‐dwelling children younger than 16 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.69 [0.46, 1.03] | 2 studies · 2874 participants | Low |
Live attenuated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Hospitalisation ‐ not reported · healthy, community‐dwelling children younger than 16 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Live attenuated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Fever assessed as reported increase in temperature · healthy, community‐dwelling children younger than 16 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 4 studies · 20561 participants | Very low |
Live attenuated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Nausea ‐ not reported · healthy, community‐dwelling children younger than 16 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | NR | No studies |
Inactivated influenza vaccine vs placebo or do nothing Influenza assessed by laboratory confirmation · healthy, community‐dwelling children older than 2 years of age Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy children (2018) · Cochrane | RR 0.36 [0.28, 0.48] | 5 studies · 1628 participants | High |
Increasing community demand vs no intervention or another intervention Client reminder and recall (postcard) compared to no intervention · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 17 studies · 402367 participants | High |
Increasing community demand vs no intervention or another intervention Client‐based education (nurses or pharmacists educated and nurses vaccinated participants) compared to no intervention · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 3.29 [1.91, 5.66] | 2 studies · 614 participants | High |
Increasing community demand vs no intervention or another intervention Client‐based education (nurses educated and vaccinated participants) compared to nurses educated participants · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 152.95 [9.39, 2490.67] | 1 study · 485 participants | High |
Increasing community demand vs no intervention or another intervention Face‐to‐face 3‐minute conversation compared to no intervention · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 1.62 [1.11, 2.35] | 1 study · 529 participants | Moderate |
Enhancing vaccination access vs no intervention or another intervention Group visits of participants to physician and nurse compared to usual care · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 27.19 [1.6, 463.25] | 1 study · 321 participants | Moderate |
Enhancing vaccination access vs no intervention or another intervention Home visit compared to invitation to attend influenza vaccination clinic · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 1.3 [1.05, 1.61] | 2 studies · 2112 participants | High |
Enhancing vaccination access vs no intervention or another intervention Home visit with encouragement to receive influenza vaccination compared to home visit with safety intervention · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 0.98 [0.64, 1.5] | 1 study · 350 participants | High |
Enhancing vaccination access vs no intervention or another intervention Home visit by nurse or group sessions with encouragement to receive influenza vaccination plus care plan developed with physician compared to no intervention · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 2 studies · 2069 participants | High |
Enhancing vaccination access vs no intervention or another intervention Free influenza vaccine compared to invitation to be vaccinated but patient pays · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 2.36 [1.98, 2.82] | 2 studies · 2251 participants | High |
Enhancing vaccination access vs no intervention or another intervention Free influenza vaccine compared to no intervention · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 2 studies · 2250 participants | High |
Provider‐ or system‐based interventions vs no intervention or another intervention Reminder (to physician) compared to no reminder · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 4 studies · 202264 participants | High |
Increasing community demand vs no intervention or another intervention Client reminder and recall (tailored letter or postcard or phone call) compared to no intervention · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 16 studies · 195964 participants | High |
Provider‐ or system‐based interventions vs no intervention or another intervention Reminder to physician about all participants compared to reminder about half of participants · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 2.47 [1.53, 3.99] | 1 study · 316 participants | High |
Provider‐ or system‐based interventions vs no intervention or another intervention Reminder (to hospital staff to vaccinate patient) compared to reminder letter to GP on day of discharge · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 1.7 [0.51, 5.7] | 1 study · 45 participants | High |
Provider‐ or system‐based interventions vs no intervention or another intervention Posters in clinic displaying influenza vaccination rates to encourage doctors to compete plus postcards to participants compared to no intervention · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 2.03 [1.86, 2.22] | 1 study · 8376 participants | High |
Provider‐ or system‐based interventions vs no intervention or another intervention Posters in clinic displaying influenza vaccination rates to encourage doctors to compete plus postcards to participants compared to posters alone · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 1.06 [0.95, 1.19] | 1 study · 5753 participants | High |
Provider‐ or system‐based interventions vs no intervention or another intervention Facilitator encouragement of prevention manoeuvres including influenza vaccination compared to no intervention · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | no estimate extracted | 3 studies · 2183 participants | Moderate |
Provider‐ or system‐based interventions vs no intervention or another intervention Educational reminders, academic detailing, and peer comparisons to physicians compared to mailed educational materials · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 1.13 [0.8, 1.58] | 1 study · 1400 participants | Moderate |
Provider‐ or system‐based interventions vs no intervention or another intervention Chart review and feedback to physician plus benchmarking to vaccination rates achieved by top 10% of physicians compared to chart review and feedback · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 3.43 [2.37, 4.97] | 1 study · 1360 participants | Moderate |
Provider‐ or system‐based interventions vs no intervention or another intervention Educational outreach plus feedback to practice teams versus written feedback to practice teams · people aged 60 years and older living in the community Interventions to increase influenza vaccination rates of those 60 years and older in the community (2018) · Cochrane | OR 0.77 [0.72, 0.81] | 1 study · 27580 participants | High |