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Each row is one question a systematic review asked: who, what, compared with what, and which outcome, with the effect it found and how certain that is. Words match anywhere in the field.

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Intervention or exposure

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Review versions

3,601 questions in 252 reviews · Pregnancy and Childbirth

current versions

No studies 726 · 20.2%Ungraded 421 · 11.7%Very low 828 · 23%Low 993 · 27.6%Moderate 486 · 13.5%High 147 · 4.1%

Ungraded means an effect was reported without a GRADE rating; it is not a gap. No studies means the review found nothing to answer the question. The six categories are a display order, not a score.

Question	Effect	Evidence	Status / GRADE
Intervention NR Interventions and comparisons · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Outcomes for all interventions for smoking cessation in pregnancy vs control: subgrouped by main intervention strategy (comparison 20) Abstinence at 0 to 5 months postpartum · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.32 [1.17, 1.5]	35 studies · 8366 participants	High
Outcomes for all interventions for smoking cessation in pregnancy vs control: subgrouped by main intervention strategy (comparison 20) Low birthweight (under 2500 g) · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 0.83 [0.72, 0.94]	18 studies · 9402 participants	High
Outcomes for all interventions for smoking cessation in pregnancy vs control: subgrouped by main intervention strategy (comparison 20) Preterm birth (under 37 weeks) · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 0.93 [0.77, 1.11]	19 studies · 9222 participants	High
Outcomes for all interventions for smoking cessation in pregnancy vs control: subgrouped by main intervention strategy (comparison 20) Mean birthweight (g) · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	MD 55.6	26 studies · 11338 participants	High
Outcomes for all interventions for smoking cessation in pregnancy vs control: subgrouped by main intervention strategy (comparison 20) Stillbirths · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.2 [0.76, 1.9]	8 studies · 6170 participants	High
Outcomes for all interventions for smoking cessation in pregnancy vs control: subgrouped by main intervention strategy (comparison 20) NICU admissions · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 0.78 [0.61, 0.98]	8 studies · 2100 participants	High
Outcomes for all interventions for smoking cessation in pregnancy vs control: subgrouped by main intervention strategy (comparison 20) Adverse events and psychological impact · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	13 studies · 13 participants	High
Intervention NR Counselling vs usual care · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.44 [1.19, 1.73]	30 studies · 12432 participants	High
Intervention NR Health education vs usual care · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.59 [0.99, 2.55]	5 studies · 629 participants	Moderate
Intervention NR Feedback vs usual care · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 4.39 [1.89, 10.21]	2 studies · 355 participants	Moderate
Intervention NR Incentives vs alternative interventions 7 · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 2.36 [1.36, 4.09]	4 studies · 212 participants	High
Intervention NR Social support vs less intensive interventions 9 · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.21 [0.93, 1.58]	7 studies · 781 participants	High
Intervention NR Exercise vs usual care · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.2 [0.72, 2.01]	1 study · 785 participants	Moderate
Intervention NR Other (active dissemination vs passive dissemination) · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.63 [0.62, 4.32]	1 study · 194 participants	Moderate
Outcomes for all interventions for smoking cessation in pregnancy vs control: subgrouped by main intervention strategy (comparison 20) Abstinence in late pregnancy: self‐reported and biochemically validated · Pregnant women who smoke Psychosocial interventions for supporting women to stop smoking in pregnancy (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.35 [1.23, 1.48]	97 studies · 26637 participants	Moderate
Any upright vs supine position Duration of second stage of labour · women in the second stage of labour without epidural anaesthesia Position in the second stage of labour for women without epidural anaesthesia (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	19 studies · 5811 participants	Very low
Any upright vs supine position Mode of birth: assisted birth · women in the second stage of labour without epidural anaesthesia Position in the second stage of labour for women without epidural anaesthesia (2017) · Cochrane	RR 0.75 [0.66, 0.86]	21 studies · 6481 participants	Moderate
Any upright vs supine position Mode of birth: caesarean section · women in the second stage of labour without epidural anaesthesia Position in the second stage of labour for women without epidural anaesthesia (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.22 [0.81, 1.81]	16 studies · 5439 participants	Low
Any upright vs supine position Trauma to the birth canal that required suturing: second degree perineal tears · women in the second stage of labour without epidural anaesthesia Position in the second stage of labour for women without epidural anaesthesia (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.2 [1, 1.44]	18 studies · 6715 participants	Low
Any upright vs supine position Trauma to the birth canal that required suturing: third/fourth degree tears · women in the second stage of labour without epidural anaesthesia Position in the second stage of labour for women without epidural anaesthesia (2017) · Cochrane	RR 0.72 [0.32, 1.65]	6 studies · 1840 participants	Very low
Any upright vs supine position Blood loss > 500 mL · women in the second stage of labour without epidural anaesthesia Position in the second stage of labour for women without epidural anaesthesia (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.48 [1.1, 1.98]	15 studies · 5615 participants	Moderate
Any upright vs supine position Admission to neonatal intensive care unit · women in the second stage of labour without epidural anaesthesia Position in the second stage of labour for women without epidural anaesthesia (2017) · Cochrane	RR 0.79 [0.51, 1.21]	4 studies · 2565 participants	Low
Acupuncture vs sham control Vaginal delivery not achieved within 24 hours ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupuncture vs usual care Serious neonatal morbidity or death ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupuncture vs sweeping of fetal membranes Vaginal delivery not achieved within 24 hours ‐ not reported · induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupuncture vs sweeping of fetal membranes Uterine hyperstimulation with FHR changes ‐ not reported · induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupuncture vs sweeping of fetal membranes Caesarean section · induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	RR 0.64 [0.34, 1.22]	1 study · 207 participants	Moderate
Acupuncture vs sweeping of fetal membranes Serious maternal morbidity or death ‐ not reported · induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupuncture vs sweeping of fetal membranes Serious neonatal morbidity or death ‐ not reported · induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupressure vs sham control Vaginal delivery not achieved within 24 hours ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupressure vs sham control Uterine hyperstimulation with FHR changes ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupressure vs sham control Caesarean section · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	RR 0.94 [0.68, 1.3]	2 studies · 239 participants	Moderate
Acupressure vs sham control Serious maternal morbidity or death ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupuncture vs sham control Uterine hyperstimulation with FHR changes ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupressure vs sham control Serious neonatal morbidity or death ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupressure vs usual care Vaginal delivery not achieved within 24 hours ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupressure vs usual care Uterine hyperstimulation with FHR changes ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupressure vs usual care Caesarean section · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.02 [0.68, 1.53]	2 studies · 151 participants	Moderate
Acupressure vs usual care Serious maternal morbidity or death ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupressure vs usual care Serious neonatal morbidity or death ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupuncture vs sham control Caesarean section · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	RR 0.8 [0.56, 1.15]	8 studies · 789 participants	High
Acupuncture vs sham control Serious neonatal morbidity or death · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 364 participants	Ungraded
Acupuncture vs sham control Serious maternal morbidity or death · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 364 participants	Ungraded
Acupuncture vs usual care Vaginal delivery not achieved within 24 hours ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupuncture vs usual care Uterine hyperstimulation with FHR changes ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Acupuncture vs usual care Caesarean section · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	RR 0.77 [0.51, 1.17]	8 studies · 760 participants	Low
Acupuncture vs usual care Serious maternal morbidity or death ‐ not reported · women due for third trimester induction of labour Acupuncture or acupressure for induction of labour (2017) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Second trimester amniocentesis vs control All known pregnancy loss (including termination of pregnancy) · prenatal diagnosis Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling for prenatal diagnosis (2017) · Cochrane	RR 1.41 [0.99, 2]	1 study · 4606 participants	Moderate
Early vs second trimester amniocentesis Sampling failure · prenatal diagnosis Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling for prenatal diagnosis (2017) · Cochrane	RR 4.53 [0.53, 38.56]	1 study · 629 participants	Moderate