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Each row is one question a systematic review asked: who, what, compared with what, and which outcome, with the effect it found and how certain that is. Words match anywhere in the field.

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Review versions

1,361 questions in 120 reviews · Developmental, Psychosocial and Learning Problems

current versions

No studies 286 · 21%Ungraded 61 · 4.5%Very low 381 · 28%Low 381 · 28%Moderate 228 · 16.8%High 24 · 1.8%

Ungraded means an effect was reported without a GRADE rating; it is not a gap. No studies means the review found nothing to answer the question. The six categories are a display order, not a score.

Question	Effect	Evidence	Status / GRADE
Cognitive‐behavioural interventions vs unspecific control ADHD symptoms: observer‐rated Assessed by: various scales · adults with ADHD Cognitive‐behavioural interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 81 participants	Low
Cognitive‐behavioural interventions vs unspecific control ADHD symptoms: self‐reported Assessed by: various scales · adults with ADHD Cognitive‐behavioural interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	2 studies · 122 participants	Low
Cognitive‐behavioural interventions vs unspecific control ADHD symptoms: observer‐rated Assessed by: various scales · adults with ADHD Cognitive‐behavioural interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	2 studies · 126 participants	Very low
Cognitive‐behavioural interventions vs unspecific control ADHD symptoms: self‐reported Assessed by: various scales · adults with ADHD Cognitive‐behavioural interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	5 studies · 251 participants	Moderate
Cognitive‐behavioural therapy plus pharmacotherapy vs pharmacotherapy alone ADHD symptoms: clinician rated Assessed by: various scales · adults with ADHD Cognitive‐behavioural interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	2 studies · 65 participants	Very low
Cognitive‐behavioural therapy plus pharmacotherapy vs pharmacotherapy alone ADHD symptoms: self‐reported Assessed by: ADHD Current Symptoms Scale (range 0 (best) to 54 (worst)) · adults with ADHD Cognitive‐behavioural interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	2 studies · 66 participants	Low
Cognitive‐behavioural therapy vs other non‐pharmacological treatment ADHD symptoms: clinician‐rated Assessed by: various scales · adults with ADHD Cognitive‐behavioural interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	2 studies · 97 participants	Low
Cognitive‐behavioural therapy vs other non‐pharmacological treatment ADHD symptoms: self‐reported Assessed by: various scales · adults with ADHD Cognitive‐behavioural interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	4 studies · 156 participants	Low
Summary of findings: dietary interventions for infantile colic vs placebo or other interventions Duration of crying · infants with colic defined by recognised criteria Dietary modifications for infantile colic (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	Very low
Summary of findings: dietary interventions for infantile colic vs placebo or other interventions Number of responders in each group after treatment · infants with colic defined by recognised criteria Dietary modifications for infantile colic (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	Very low
Summary of findings: dietary interventions for infantile colic vs placebo or other interventions Frequency of crying episodes per 24 h · infants with colic defined by recognised criteria Dietary modifications for infantile colic (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	Very low
Summary of findings: dietary interventions for infantile colic vs placebo or other interventions Parental or family quality of life, including measures of parental stress, anxiety or depression · infants with colic defined by recognised criteria Dietary modifications for infantile colic (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Summary of findings: dietary interventions for infantile colic vs placebo or other interventions Infant sleep duration per 24 h at 7, 14 and 21 days from start of intervention · infants with colic defined by recognised criteria Dietary modifications for infantile colic (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Summary of findings: dietary interventions for infantile colic vs placebo or other interventions Parental satisfaction · infants with colic defined by recognised criteria Dietary modifications for infantile colic (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Summary of findings: dietary interventions for infantile colic vs placebo or other interventions Adverse effects to dietary modifications · infants with colic defined by recognised criteria Dietary modifications for infantile colic (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	Very low
Summary of findings: NBAS or NBO vs control Quality of caregiver‐infant interaction (parental sensitivity, attunement, etc.); continuous data Assessed at postintervention using validated assessment scales for caregiver‐infant interaction: higher scores indicate better outcome · caregiver‐infant dyads The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) and Newborn Behavioral Observations (NBO) system for… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	7 studies · 304 participants	Very low
Summary of findings: NBAS or NBO vs control Caregiver mental health (depression), dichotomous data Assessed at postintervention using the EPDS; lower scores indicate less depression · caregiver‐infant dyads The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) and Newborn Behavioral Observations (NBO) system for… (2018) · Cochrane	RR 0.23 [0.05, 1.04]	1 study · 106 participants	Low
Summary of findings: NBAS or NBO vs control Infant social, emotional, cognitive and motor development Assessed when infant aged 4 months, using the BSID; higher scores indicate better development · caregiver‐infant dyads The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) and Newborn Behavioral Observations (NBO) system for… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 125 participants	Low
Summary of findings: NBAS or NBO vs control Caregiver perception of infant (parents' perception of the degree of difficult temperament of the infant) Assessed at postintervention, 8 weeks after delivery; higher score indicates better outcome · caregiver‐infant dyads The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) and Newborn Behavioral Observations (NBO) system for… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 44 participants	Low
Summary of findings: NBAS or NBO vs control Caregiver stress (maternal perceptions of her adjustment to the parenting role) Assessed when infant aged 4 months, using the PSI · caregiver‐infant dyads The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) and Newborn Behavioral Observations (NBO) system for… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 125 participants	Low
Summary of findings: NBAS or NBO vs control Caregiver knowledge (related to infants' physical capacities, including reflexes and senses) Assessed at postintervention, using multiple choice factual questions; higher scores indicate better outcome · caregiver‐infant dyads The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) and Newborn Behavioral Observations (NBO) system for… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 26 participants	Very low
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Age at introduction of complementary foods Measurement: proportion participants with event · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	RR 0.88 [0.83, 0.94]	4 studies · 1738 participants	Moderate
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Nutritional status: stunting (H/LAZ ≤ −2 SD) Measurement: proportion of participants with events · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	RR 0.89 [0.74, 1.06]	5 studies · 3487 participants	Low
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Nutritional status: wasting (WH/LZ ≤ −2 SD) Measurement: proportion of participants with event · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	RR 0.79 [0.48, 1.3]	2 studies · 2000 participants	Low
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Nutritional status: underweight (WAZ ≤ −2 SD) Measurement: proportion of participants with event · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	RR 0.99 [0.68, 1.44]	3 studies · 2900 participants	Low
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Duration of exclusive breastfeeding (≥ 4 months of age) Measurement: proportion of participants with event · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	RR 1.58 [0.77, 3.22]	3 studies · 1544 participants	Very low
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Duration of exclusive breastfeeding (≥ 4 months of age): community‐based intervention Measurement: proportion of participants with event · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	RR 2.32 [1.45, 3.73]	2 studies · 1167 participants	Low
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Duration of exclusive breastfeeding (≥ 4 months of age): facility‐based intervention Measurement: proportion of participants with event · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	RR 0.95 [0.7, 1.29]	1 study · 377 participants	Low
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Hygiene practices: community‐based intervention Measurement: proportion of participants with event · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	RR 1.38 [1.23, 1.55]	4 studies · 2029 participants	Moderate
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Weight (at 6 months of age) Measurement: kg (mean and standard deviation) · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	3 studies · 1221 participants	Very low
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Weight (at 12 months of age) Measurement: kg (mean and standard deviation) · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	5 studies · 2464 participants	Very low
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Height/length (at 6 months of age) Measurement: cm (mean and standard deviation) · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	3 studies · 1221 participants	Very low
Educational intervention vs no educational intervention Height/length (at 12 months of age) Measurement: cm (mean and standard deviation) · children of complementary feeding age Educational interventions for improving primary caregiver complementary feeding practices for children aged… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	5 studies · 2464 participants	Low
De‐escalation vs standard care Frequency of aggression‐related serious untoward incidents · patients with dementia De‐escalation techniques for managing non‐psychosis induced aggression in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
De‐escalation vs standard care Frequency of aggression‐related injuries to staff · patients with dementia De‐escalation techniques for managing non‐psychosis induced aggression in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
De‐escalation vs standard care Quality of life · patients with dementia De‐escalation techniques for managing non‐psychosis induced aggression in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
De‐escalation vs standard care Agitated behaviour (validated scale) Measured by: Cohen‐Mansfield Agitation Inventory ‐ Global (29 individual items rated on 7‐point scale, ranging from 1 (never occurs) to 7 (occurs several times an hour), and summed to give a total score ranging... · patients with dementia De‐escalation techniques for managing non‐psychosis induced aggression in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 306 participants	Very low
De‐escalation vs standard care Physically aggressive behaviour (validated scale) Measured by: Cohen‐Mansfield Agitation Inventory ‐ Physically Aggressive Behaviour Scale (9 items rated on 7‐point scale, ranging from 1 (never occurs) to 7 (occurs several times an hour); lower sc... · patients with dementia De‐escalation techniques for managing non‐psychosis induced aggression in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 306 participants	Very low
De‐escalation vs standard care Verbally aggressive behaviour (validated scale) Measured by: Cohen‐Mansfield Agitation Inventory ‐ Verbally Aggressive Behaviour Scale (3 items rated on 7‐point scale, ranging from 1 (never occurs) to 7 (occurs several times an hour); lower score ... · patients with dementia De‐escalation techniques for managing non‐psychosis induced aggression in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 306 participants	Very low
De‐escalation vs standard care Agitated behaviour (observational measure) Measured by: Observation Scale (25 items scored after 3 minutes of observation by clinical raters; lower score = less severe behaviours) · patients with dementia De‐escalation techniques for managing non‐psychosis induced aggression in adults (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 306 participants	Very low
Intervention NR Comparative studies · children and adolescents aged 18 years and under diagnosed with ADHD Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Intervention NR Serious adverse events Measured by: proportion of serious adverse events (total) Average study duration (range): not stated · children and adolescents aged 18 years and under diagnosed with ADHD Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment… (2018) · Cochrane	RR 1.36 [1.17, 1.57]	2 studies · 72005 participants	Very low
Intervention NR Non‐comparative studies · children and adolescents aged 18 years and under diagnosed with ADHD Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	NR	No studies
Intervention NR Serious adverse events Measured by: proportion of any serious adverse events Average study duration (range): 4.7 months (14 days to 21 months) · children and adolescents aged 18 years and under diagnosed with ADHD Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	51 studies · 162422 participants	Very low
Intervention NR Withdrawal of methylphenidate due to serious adverse events (non‐comparative cohort studies) Measured by: proportion of participants withdrawn from treatment Average study duration (range): 7.9 months (1 month to 37 months) · children and adolescents aged 18 years and under diagnosed with ADHD Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	7 studies · 1173 participants	Very low
Intervention NR Withdrawal of methylphenidate due to adverse events of unknown severity Measured by: proportion of participants withdrawn from treatment Average study duration (range): 4.6 months (21 days to 36 months) · children and adolescents aged 18 years and under diagnosed with ADHD Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	22 studies · 3708 participants	Very low
Intervention NR Non‐serious adverse events Measured by: proportion of any non‐serious adverse events Average study duration (range): 5.99 months (1 day to 41 months) · children and adolescents aged 18 years and under diagnosed with ADHD Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	49 studies · 13978 participants	Very low
Intervention NR Withdrawal of methylphenidate due to non‐serious adverse events Measured by: proportion of participants withdrawn from treatment Average study duration (range): 5.60 months (0.6 months to 41 months) · children and adolescents aged 18 years and under diagnosed with ADHD Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	37 studies · 7142 participants	Very low
Intervention NR Withdrawal of methylphenidate for unknown reasons Measure by: proportion of participants withdrawn from treatment Average study duration (range): 6.13 months (1 day to 36 months) · children and adolescents aged 18 years and under diagnosed with ADHD Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	57 studies · 8340 participants	Very low
Parent‐mediated intervention vs treatment Expressive language (number of (different) target words) · children with Down syndrome aged between birth and six years Parent‐mediated interventions for promoting communication and language development in young children with… (2018) · Cochrane	no estimate extracted	1 study · 12 participants	Very low