What do systematic reviews say?

Inhaled corticosteroids vs placebo

Summary of findings table ‐ ICS probably leads to higher oropharyngeal candidiasis compared with placebo (moderate certainty).

• Inhaled corticosteroids versus placebo for stable chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  OR 2.66 [1.91, 3.68]
  7 studies · 5547 participants
  Moderate

Exercise vs control

• Exercise‐based rehabilitation programmes for pulmonary hypertension 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  11 studies · 418 participants
  Low
• Exercise‐based rehabilitation programmes for pulmonary hypertension 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  7 studies · 314 participants
  Low

Exercise vs control

• Exercise‐based rehabilitation programmes for pulmonary hypertension 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  5 studies · 226 participants
  Low

Exercise vs control

Exercise showed no clear difference in serious adverse events compared with control (moderate certainty).

• Exercise‐based rehabilitation programmes for pulmonary hypertension 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  RD 0
  11 studies · 439 participants
  Moderate

Exercise vs control

• Exercise‐based rehabilitation programmes for pulmonary hypertension 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  5 studies · 187 participants
  Moderate

Exercise vs control

• Exercise‐based rehabilitation programmes for pulmonary hypertension 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  5 studies · 186 participants
  Moderate

Inspiratory muscle training vs control or sham

• Inspiratory muscle training, with or without concomitant pulmonary rehabilitation, for chronic obstructive pulmonary… 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  16 studies · 501 participants
  Moderate

Inspiratory muscle training vs control or sham

• Inspiratory muscle training, with or without concomitant pulmonary rehabilitation, for chronic obstructive pulmonary… 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  6 studies · 182 participants
  Very low
• Inspiratory muscle training, with or without concomitant pulmonary rehabilitation, for chronic obstructive pulmonary… 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  2 studies · 86 participants
  Moderate

Inspiratory muscle training vs control or sham

• Inspiratory muscle training, with or without concomitant pulmonary rehabilitation, for chronic obstructive pulmonary… 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  32 studies · 916 participants
  Low

Inspiratory muscle training vs control or sham

• Inspiratory muscle training, with or without concomitant pulmonary rehabilitation, for chronic obstructive pulmonary… 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  6 studies · 144 participants
  Very low
• Inspiratory muscle training, with or without concomitant pulmonary rehabilitation, for chronic obstructive pulmonary… 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  8 studies · 238 participants
  Very low
• Inspiratory muscle training, with or without concomitant pulmonary rehabilitation, for chronic obstructive pulmonary… 2023 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  4 studies · 150 participants
  Low

Self‐management interventions vs usual care

• Self‐management interventions for people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  2778 participants
  Low

Self‐management interventions vs usual care

• Self‐management interventions for people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  356 participants
  Low

Self‐management interventions vs usual care

• Self‐management interventions for people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  1939 participants
  Low

Self‐management interventions vs usual care

• Self‐management interventions for people with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  1647 participants
  Moderate

Summary of findings table ‐ immunostimulant vs placebo

Summary of findings table ‐ immunostimulant probably leads to higher number of participants with no exacerbations during the study period compared with placebo (moderate certainty).

• Immunostimulants versus placebo for preventing exacerbations in adults with chronic bronchitis or chronic obstructive… 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  OR 1.48 [1.15, 1.9]
  15 studies · 2961 participants
  Moderate

Summary of findings table ‐ immunostimulant vs placebo

Summary of findings table ‐ immunostimulant showed no clear difference in mortality (all‐cause) compared with placebo (moderate certainty).

• Immunostimulants versus placebo for preventing exacerbations in adults with chronic bronchitis or chronic obstructive… 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  OR 0.64 [0.37, 1.1]
  5 studies · 1558 participants
  Moderate

Summary of findings table ‐ immunostimulant vs placebo

Summary of findings table ‐ immunostimulant showed no clear difference in mortality (respiratory‐related) compared with placebo (low certainty).

• Immunostimulants versus placebo for preventing exacerbations in adults with chronic bronchitis or chronic obstructive… 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  OR 0.4 [0.15, 1.07]
  2 studies · 735 participants
  Low

Summary of findings table ‐ immunostimulant vs placebo

• Immunostimulants versus placebo for preventing exacerbations in adults with chronic bronchitis or chronic obstructive… 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  no estimate extracted
  2 studies · 617 participants
  Very low

Summary of findings table ‐ immunostimulant vs placebo

Summary of findings table ‐ immunostimulant probably leads to lower number of participants requiring antibiotics compared with placebo (moderate certainty).

• Immunostimulants versus placebo for preventing exacerbations in adults with chronic bronchitis or chronic obstructive… 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  OR 0.34 [0.18, 0.63]
  5 studies · 542 participants
  Moderate

Summary of findings table ‐ immunostimulant vs placebo

Summary of findings table ‐ immunostimulant showed no clear difference in adverse events/side effects compared with placebo (high certainty).

• Immunostimulants versus placebo for preventing exacerbations in adults with chronic bronchitis or chronic obstructive… 2022 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
  OR 1.01 [0.84, 1.21]
  20 studies · 3780 participants
  High