Findings

What do systematic reviews say?

2,183 questions · 2,385 findings · 241 reviews

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No studies found 558 · 23.4%GRADE not reported 158 · 6.6%Very low 704 · 29.5%Low 618 · 25.9%Moderate 276 · 11.6%High 71 · 3%

ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) vs usual care

Hospital admissions · patients with schizophrenia

ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) may leads to lower service utilisation: Hospital admission ‐ at about 12 months compared with STANDARD CARE (low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Family intervention for schizophrenia 2010 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 0.78 [0.63, 0.98]
9 studies · 532 participants
Low

ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) vs usual care

Relapse · patients with schizophrenia

ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) may leads to lower global state: Relapse ‐ at about 12 months compared with STANDARD CARE (low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Family intervention for schizophrenia 2010 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 0.55 [0.48, 0.62]
32 studies · 2981 participants
Low

ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) vs usual care

Compliance: Poor compliance with medication · patients with schizophrenia

ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) may leads to lower compliance: Poor compliance with medication compared with STANDARD CARE (low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Family intervention for schizophrenia 2010 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 0.6 [0.49, 0.73]
10 studies · 695 participants
Low

ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) vs usual care

Social functioning: Specific ‐ unemployed ‐ at about 1 year · patients with schizophrenia

ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) showed no clear difference in social functioning: Specific ‐ unemployed ‐ at about 1 year compared with STANDARD CARE (low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Family intervention for schizophrenia 2010 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 1.06 [0.89, 1.25]
5 studies · 285 participants
Low

ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) vs usual care

Social functioning: Specific ‐ unable to live independently ‐ at about 1 year · patients with schizophrenia

ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) showed no clear difference in social functioning: Specific ‐ unable to live independently ‐ at… compared with STANDARD CARE (low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Family intervention for schizophrenia 2010 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 0.83 [0.66, 1.03]
3 studies · 164 participants
Low

ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) vs usual care

Family outcome: Burden ‐ not improved/worse (objective burden related to self‐sufficiency) · patients with schizophrenia

It is very uncertain whether ANY FAMILY BASED INTERVENTIONS (>5 sessions) changes family outcome: Burden ‐ not improved/worse (objective burden… compared with STANDARD CARE (very low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Family intervention for schizophrenia 2010 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 0.53 [0.21, 1.37]
1 study · 51 participants
Very low

Nutrition education intervention for pregnant women vs no intervention or standard care to reduce stunting (height‐for‐age, length at 18 months)

Low birth weight (g) · pregnant women

Nutrition education intervention for pregnant women may leads to higher low birth weight (g) compared with standard care or no intervention, to reduce stunting (low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Nutritional interventions for preventing stunting in children (birth to 59 months) living in urban slums in low‐ and… 2019 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
MD 478.44 [423.55, 533.32]
2 studies · 415 participants
Low

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions (Folic Acid, Vitamin B6 and Vitamin B12) vs placebo or usual care

Myocardial infarction · people with or without existing cardiovascular disease, men and women

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions (Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine;… showed no clear difference in myocardial infarction compared with placebo or standard care (high certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions for preventing cardiovascular events 2017 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 1.02 [0.95, 1.1]
12 studies · 46699 participants
High

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions (Folic Acid, Vitamin B6 and Vitamin B12) vs placebo or usual care

Stroke · people with or without existing cardiovascular disease, men and women

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions (Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine;… leads to lower stroke compared with placebo or standard care (high certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions for preventing cardiovascular events 2017 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 0.9 [0.82, 0.99]
10 studies · 44224 participants
High

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions (Folic Acid, Vitamin B6 and Vitamin B12) vs placebo or usual care

Death by any cause · people with or without existing cardiovascular disease, men and women

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions (Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine;… showed no clear difference in death by any cause compared with placebo or standard care (high certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions for preventing cardiovascular events 2017 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 1.01 [0.96, 1.06]
11 studies · 44817 participants
High

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions (Folic Acid, Vitamin B6 and Vitamin B12) vs placebo or usual care

Adverse events · people with or without existing cardiovascular disease, men and women

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions (Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine;… showed no clear difference in adverse events compared with placebo or standard care (high certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Homocysteine‐lowering interventions for preventing cardiovascular events 2017 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 1.07 [1, 1.14]
8 studies · 35788 participants
High

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Self-efficacy related to oral health · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based educational interventions significantly improved oral health self-efficacy (SMD 1.49; low certainty), though between-study heterogeneity was very high.

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 4 weeks to 12 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD 1.49 [0.99, 2.00]
10 studies · 4513 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Oral health attitudes (1-7 scale) · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly improved oral health attitude (SMD 9.32; low certainty); the very large effect warrants cautious interpretation.

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up immediately after to 6 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD 9.32 [7.08, 11.55]
3 studies · 2370 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Oral health-related quality of life · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly improved oral health-related quality of life (SMD 7.38; low certainty), with very high heterogeneity.

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 0.5 to 12 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD 7.38 [5.57, 9.19]
4 studies · 4751 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Mean DMFT (decayed, missing, filled permanent teeth) · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions showed no significant effect on DMFT scores (SMD -0.11; low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 3 to 12 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD -0.11 [-0.27, 0.04]
4 studies · 2556 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Periodontal health status · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly improved periodontal health (SMD -1.18; moderate certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 2 weeks to 6 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD -1.18 [-1.83, -0.53]
4 studies · 3342 participants
Moderate

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Oral health behaviour (1-9 scale) · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly improved oral health behavior (SMD 2.58; low certainty), with very high heterogeneity.

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 0.5 to 24 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD 2.58 [2.03, 3.12]
6 studies · 13973 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Oral health knowledge (1-9 scale) · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly improved oral health knowledge (SMD 1.09; low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up immediately after to 24 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD 1.09 [0.80, 1.39]
7 studies · 10904 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Plaque index (PI) / oral hygiene · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly reduced dental plaque (SMD -1.92; moderate certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 1 to 24 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD -1.92 [-2.42, -1.42]
9 studies · 12562 participants
Moderate

Interventions directed at healthcare providers vs placebo

Smoking cessation · physicians and clinics from a multispecialty group practice

Interventions directed at healthcare providers showed no clear difference in abstinence from smoking compared with placebo (moderate certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Healthcare financing systems for increasing the use of tobacco dependence treatment 2017 · Cochrane Headline outcomes only
RR 1.16 [0.98, 1.37]
2 studies · 2311 participants
Moderate