Gap finder

Search review questions

Each row is one question a systematic review asked: who, what, compared with what, and which outcome, with the effect it found and how certain that is. Words match anywhere in the field.

Limit to evidence status or GRADE (optional)

430 questions in 68 reviews · Tobacco Addiction

current versions
No studies 26 · 6%Ungraded 12 · 2.8%Very low 116 · 27%Low 159 · 37%Moderate 87 · 20.2%High 30 · 7%

Ungraded means an effect was reported without a GRADE rating; it is not a gap. No studies means the review found nothing to answer the question. The six categories are a display order, not a score.

QuestionEffectEvidenceStatus / GRADE
Smoking cessation counselling vs no smoking cessation counselling, grouped by intensity of intervention
Quit at longest · individuals who smoke cigarettes and are admitted to a hospital for medical or surgical care
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.52 [0.8, 2.89]2 studies · 1417 participantsVery low
Hospital‐only intervention vs intervention that continues after hospital discharge
Pharmacotherapy + behavioural support vs neither · smoking cessation in hospitalised patients
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.23 [1.09, 1.38]7 studies · 5610 participantsHigh
Telephone quitline referral vs no treatment or usual care
Quitline referral vs control · smoking cessation in hospitalised patients
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.17 [0.7, 1.96]2 studies · 1870 participantsVery low
Telephone quitline referral vs no treatment or usual care
Health system telephone counselling vs quitline · smoking cessation in hospitalised patients
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.23 [1, 1.51]3 studies · 3260 participantsVery low
Smoking cessation counselling vs no smoking cessation counselling, grouped by intensity of intervention
Quit at longest · individuals who smoke cigarettes and are admitted to a hospital for medical or surgical care
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.27 [1.02, 1.58]12 studies · 4432 participantsModerate
Smoking cessation counselling vs no smoking cessation counselling, grouped by intensity of intervention
Quit at longest · individuals who smoke cigarettes and are admitted to a hospital for medical or surgical care
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.04 [0.9, 1.2]7 studies · 4627 participantsVery low
Smoking cessation counselling vs no smoking cessation counselling, grouped by intensity of intervention
Quit at longest · individuals who smoke cigarettes and are admitted to a hospital for medical or surgical care
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.36 [1.24, 1.49]28 studies · 8234 participantsHigh
Pharmacotherapy plus counselling vs no pharmacotherapy or placebo plus counselling
Quit at longest · smoking cessation in hospitalised patients
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.33 [1.05, 1.67]8 studies · 3838 participantsHigh
Pharmacotherapy plus counselling vs no pharmacotherapy or placebo plus counselling
Quit at longest · smoking cessation in hospitalised patients
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.11 [0.86, 1.43]4 studies · 872 participantsLow
Pharmacotherapy plus counselling vs no pharmacotherapy or placebo plus counselling
Quit at longest · smoking cessation in hospitalised patients
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.29 [0.96, 1.75]4 studies · 829 participantsModerate
Hospital‐only intervention vs intervention that continues after hospital discharge
Behavioural support ‐ asynchronous** · smoking cessation in hospitalised patients
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 0.97 [0.83, 1.14]2 studies · 1598 participantsVery low
Hospital‐only intervention vs intervention that continues after hospital discharge
Behavioural support ‐ synchronous** · smoking cessation in hospitalised patients
Interventions for smoking cessation in hospitalised patients (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.23 [0.95, 1.6]8 studies · 2299 participantsLow
Nicotine EC vs NRT
Smoking cessation at 6 months to 1 year · People who smoke
Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.59 [1.29, 1.93]7 studies · 2544 participantsHigh
Nicotine EC vs NRT
Adverse events at 4 weeks to 6‐9 months Assessed by self‐report · People who smoke
Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.03 [0.91, 1.17]5 studies · 2052 participantsModerate
Nicotine EC vs NRT
Serious adverse events at 4 weeks to 1 year Assessed via self‐report and medical records · People who smoke
Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.2 [0.9, 1.6]6 studies · 2411 participantsLow
Nicotine EC vs non‐nicotine EC
Smoking cessation at 6‐12 months · People who smoke cigarettes
Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.46 [1.09, 1.96]6 studies · 1613 participantsModerate
Nicotine EC vs non‐nicotine EC
Adverse events at 1 week to 6 months Assessed via self‐report · People who smoke cigarettes
Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.01 [0.91, 1.11]5 studies · 840 participantsModerate
Nicotine EC vs non‐nicotine EC
Serious adverse events at 1 week to 1 year Assessed via self‐report and medical records · People who smoke cigarettes
Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1 [0.56, 1.79]9 studies · 1412 participantsLow
Nicotine EC vs behavioural support only/no support
Smoking cessation at 6 to 12 months Assessed using biochemical validation · People who smoke
Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.88 [1.56, 2.25]9 studies · 5024 participantsLow
Nicotine EC vs behavioural support only/no support
Adverse events at 12 weeks to 6 months Assessed via self‐report · People who smoke
Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation (2024) · Cochrane
RR 1.22 [1.12, 1.32]4 studies · 765 participantsLow
Nicotine EC vs behavioural support only/no support
Serious adverse events at 4 weeks to 8 months Assessed via self‐report and medical records · People who smoke
Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation (2024) · Cochrane
RR 0.89 [0.59, 1.34]10 studies · 3263 participantsVery low
Bupropion vs placebo/no pharmacological treatment
Smoking cessation (at least six months of · people who smoke
Antidepressants for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.6 [1.49, 1.72]50 studies · 18577 participantsHigh
Bupropion vs placebo/no pharmacological treatment
Serious adverse events · people who smoke
Antidepressants for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.16 [0.9, 1.48]23 studies · 10958 participantsModerate
Bupropion vs placebo/no pharmacological treatment
Dropouts due to treatment · people who smoke
Antidepressants for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.44 [1.27, 1.65]25 studies · 12346 participantsHigh
Bupropion plus nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) vs NRT alone
Smoking cessation (at least six months of · people who smoke
Antidepressants for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.17 [0.95, 1.44]15 studies · 4117 participantsLow
Bupropion plus nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) vs NRT alone
Serious adverse events · people who smoke
Antidepressants for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.52 [0.26, 8.89]4 studies · 657 participantsLow
Bupropion plus nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) vs NRT alone
Dropouts due to treatment · people who smoke
Antidepressants for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.67 [0.95, 2.92]3 studies · 737 participantsLow
Bupropion plus varenicline vs varenicline alone
Smoking cessation (at least six months of · people who smoke
Antidepressants for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.21 [0.95, 1.55]3 studies · 1057 participantsModerate
Bupropion plus varenicline vs varenicline alone
Serious adverse events · people who smoke
Antidepressants for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.23 [0.63, 2.42]5 studies · 1268 participantsLow
Bupropion plus varenicline vs varenicline alone
Dropouts due to treatment · people who smoke
Antidepressants for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 0.8 [0.45, 1.45]4 studies · 1230 participantsLow
Intervention NR
Face‐to‐face behavioral intervention vs minimal or no support (Measured 3 to 6 months with CO‐validated prolonged and continuous abstinence, and self‐reported abstinence) · people who use waterpipe
Interventions for waterpipe smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 2.64 [1.66, 4.2]851 participantsLow
Intervention NR
Varenicline plus behavioral intervention vs placebo plus behavioral intervention ‐ (repeated point prevalence abstinence (not even a puff/chew/session in the last 7 days) at each of weeks 5, 12, and 25 (combined), verified by CO cutoff < 10 ppm) · people who use waterpipe
Interventions for waterpipe smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.24 [0.69, 2.24]2 studies · 662 participantsLow
Intervention NR
Bupropion therapy plus behavioral intervention vs behavioral intervention alone (continuous waterpipe smoking abstinence, defined as an expired CO of 9 ppm or less at the 6‐month postintervention · people who use waterpipe
Interventions for waterpipe smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 0.77 [0.42, 1.41]121 participantsVery low
Intervention NR
Bupropion therapy plus behavioral support versus self‐help (continuous waterpipe smoking abstinence, defined as an expired CO of 9 ppm or less at the 6‐month postintervention · people who use waterpipe
Interventions for waterpipe smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.94 [0.94, 4]86 participantsVery low
Intervention NR
E‐health interventions · people who use waterpipe
Interventions for waterpipe smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
OR 1.482 studies · 389 participantsVery low
Varenicline vs placebo or no medication
Smoking abstinence at longest · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 2.32 [2.15, 2.51]41 studies · 17395 participantsHigh
Cytisine vs varenicline
SAEs · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 0.67 [0.44, 1.03]2 studies · 2017 participantsLow
Cytisine vs varenicline
Neuropsychiatric SAEs · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
no estimate extractedNRNo studies
Cytisine vs varenicline
Cardiac SAEs · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
no estimate extractedNRNo studies
Cytisine vs nicotine replacement therapy
Smoking abstinence at longest · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.43 [1.13, 1.8]1 study · 1310 participantsLow
Cytisine vs nicotine replacement therapy
SAEs · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.15 [0.76, 1.75]1 study · 1310 participantsVery low
Cytisine vs nicotine replacement therapy
Neuropsychiatric SAEs · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
no estimate extractedNRNo studies
Cytisine vs nicotine replacement therapy
Cardiac SAEs · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
no estimate extractedNRNo studies
Varenicline vs bupropion
Smoking abstinence at longest · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.36 [1.25, 1.49]9 studies · 7560 participantsHigh
Varenicline vs bupropion
SAEs · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 0.89 [0.61, 1.31]5 studies · 5317 participantsLow
Varenicline vs bupropion
Neuropsychiatric SAEs · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.05 [0.16, 7.04]2 studies · 866 participantsLow
Varenicline vs placebo or no medication
SAEs (varenicline vs placebo or no medication) · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.23 [1.01, 1.48]26 studies · 14356 participantsModerate
Varenicline vs bupropion
Cardiac SAEs · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 3.17 [0.33, 30.18]2 studies · 866 participantsLow
Varenicline vs nicotine replacement therapy monotherapy
Smoking abstinence at longest · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 1.25 [1.14, 1.37]11 studies · 7572 participantsHigh
Varenicline vs nicotine replacement therapy monotherapy
SAEs · people who smoke tobacco
Nicotine receptor partial agonists for smoking cessation (2023) · Cochrane
RR 0.7 [0.5, 0.99]6 studies · 6535 participantsLow