Findings

What do systematic reviews say?

129 questions · 201 findings · 16 reviews · Dental caries

Sort:Best matchNewest Highest certainty Download CSV

No studies found 1 · 0.5%GRADE not reported 181 · 90%Very low 7 · 3.5%Low 7 · 3.5%Moderate 5 · 2.5%High 0 · 0%

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Self-efficacy related to oral health · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based educational interventions significantly improved oral health self-efficacy (SMD 1.49; low certainty), though between-study heterogeneity was very high.

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 4 weeks to 12 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD 1.49 [0.99, 2.00]
10 studies · 4513 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Oral health attitudes (1-7 scale) · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly improved oral health attitude (SMD 9.32; low certainty); the very large effect warrants cautious interpretation.

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up immediately after to 6 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD 9.32 [7.08, 11.55]
3 studies · 2370 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Oral health-related quality of life · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly improved oral health-related quality of life (SMD 7.38; low certainty), with very high heterogeneity.

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 0.5 to 12 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD 7.38 [5.57, 9.19]
4 studies · 4751 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Mean DMFT (decayed, missing, filled permanent teeth) · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions showed no significant effect on DMFT scores (SMD -0.11; low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 3 to 12 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD -0.11 [-0.27, 0.04]
4 studies · 2556 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Periodontal health status · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly improved periodontal health (SMD -1.18; moderate certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 2 weeks to 6 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD -1.18 [-1.83, -0.53]
4 studies · 3342 participants
Moderate

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Oral health behaviour (1-9 scale) · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly improved oral health behavior (SMD 2.58; low certainty), with very high heterogeneity.

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 0.5 to 24 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD 2.58 [2.03, 3.12]
6 studies · 13973 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Oral health knowledge (1-9 scale) · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly improved oral health knowledge (SMD 1.09; low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up immediately after to 24 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD 1.09 [0.80, 1.39]
7 studies · 10904 participants
Low

Theory-based oral health education/promotion interventions (HBM, TPB, SCT, HAPA, TTM, PMT, SOC, PRECEDE-PROCEED, MI) vs Control (waitlist, routine/standard oral health education, or minimal intervention)

Plaque index (PI) / oral hygiene · school‐age children and adolescents

Theory-based interventions significantly reduced dental plaque (SMD -1.92; moderate certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Health promotion theory-based educational interventions for improving oral health in children and adolescents: a… 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (follow-up 1 to 24 months, varies by study) · School-based and community settings; multiple countries (predominantly Iran; also Pakistan, Hong Kong, Lithuania, Thailand) · Overall
SMD -1.92 [-2.42, -1.42]
9 studies · 12562 participants
Moderate

Behaviour change / oral health promotion interventions delivered by non-dental professionals and health workers (nurses, midwives, health visitors, community health workers) vs control (no intervention/usual care/isotonic exercise)

Caries experience at the surface level (dmfs/defs) · Children (mean age newborn to ~5.2 years) and their parents/carers

Behaviour change interventions delivered by non-dental health workers produced a small, statistically significant reduction in caries experience at the surface level (dmfs SMD -0.15, 95% CI -0.25 to -0.04; 12 studies); the review judged the overall evidence to be of low quality (not GRADE-rated).

1 finding from 1 review

The effectiveness of behaviour change interventions delivered by non-dental health workers in promoting children's… 2022 All outcomes
Primary care and community settings; interventions delivered by non-dental health workers (multiple countries: Australia, Brazil, Canada, India, UK, USA, etc.)
SMD -0.15 [-0.25, -0.04]
12 studies
GRADE not reported

Behaviour change / oral health promotion interventions delivered by non-dental professionals and health workers (nurses, midwives, health visitors, community health workers) vs control (no intervention/usual care/isotonic exercise)

Caries experience · Children (mean age newborn to ~5.2 years) and their parents/carers

Behaviour change interventions delivered by non-dental health workers produced a small-to-moderate, statistically significant reduction in caries experience at the tooth level (dmft SMD -0.34, 95% CI -0.54 to -0.13; 6 studies); the review judged the overall evidence to be of low quality (not GRADE-rated).

1 finding from 1 review

The effectiveness of behaviour change interventions delivered by non-dental health workers in promoting children's… 2022 All outcomes
Primary care and community settings; interventions delivered by non-dental health workers (multiple countries: Australia, Brazil, Canada, India, UK, USA, etc.)
SMD -0.34 [-0.54, -0.13]
6 studies
GRADE not reported

Primary school-based interventions (one or more of: school health policy, oral health education, healthy school environment, access to oral health services, community involvement) vs usual practice

Plaque index (PI) / oral hygiene · Primary school children (aged 3-16 years) attending primary school in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)

School-based interventions may reduce dental plaque scores (SMD -0.32, favouring intervention), but the certainty of evidence is very low.

1 finding from 1 review

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean)
SMD -0.32 [-0.46, -0.18]
7 studies · 3339 participants
Very low

Primary school-based interventions (one or more of: school health policy, oral health education, healthy school environment, access to oral health services, community involvement) vs usual practice

Oral hygiene measured by mean gingival scores · Primary school children (aged 3-16 years) attending primary school in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)

The effect of school-based interventions on gingival scores is uncertain and not statistically significant (SMD 0.12; very low certainty).

1 finding from 1 review

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean)
SMD 0.12 [-0.32, 0.55]
3 studies · 1573 participants
Very low

Primary school-based interventions (one or more of: school health policy, oral health education, healthy school environment, access to oral health services, community involvement) vs usual practice

Dental caries · Primary school children (aged 3-16 years) attending primary school in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)

Among children aged 6-8 years, DMFT scores were significantly reduced (SMD -0.11); subgroup not separately GRADE-rated.

8 findings from 1 review

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Age 6-8 years
SMD -0.11 [-0.17, -0.04]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · <=3 intervention activities
SMD -0.58 [-1.62, 0.45]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
<2 years · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention duration <2 years
SMD 0.01 [-0.16, 0.18]
3 studies
GRADE not reported

Show 5 more findings

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Age 8-15 years
SMD -0.41 [-0.50, -0.32]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
>=2 years · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention duration >=2 years
SMD -0.49 [-0.79, -0.19]
4 studies
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean)
SMD -0.33 [-0.56, -0.10]
7 studies · 6766 participants
Very low
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean)
SMD -0.26 [-0.70, 0.18]
5 studies · 3506 participants
Very low
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · >3 intervention activities
SMD 0.02 [-0.13, 0.17]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

Primary school-based interventions (one or more of: school health policy, oral health education, healthy school environment, access to oral health services, community involvement) vs usual practice

Annual increment in DMFS (D3) · Primary school children (aged 3-16 years) attending primary school in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)

Oral-health-education interventions significantly reduced net increment in DMFS (SMD -1.05); no significant subgroup difference vs other interventions (P=0.74).

5 findings from 1 review

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention type: oral health education
SMD -1.05 [-2.03, -0.08]
3 studies
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · WHO health-promoting-schools framework
SMD -0.57 [-1.56, 0.42]
2 studies
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Non-WHO-framework interventions
SMD -1.88 [-3.15, -0.60]
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

Show 2 more findings

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention type: other (daily tooth brushing)
SMD -1.23 [-1.46, -1.00]
1 study
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean)
SMD -1.09 [-1.91, -0.27]
4 studies · 3755 participants
Very low

Primary school-based interventions (one or more of: school health policy, oral health education, healthy school environment, access to oral health services, community involvement) vs usual practice

Dental caries prevalence measured by dmft or DMFT/S score greater than one · Primary school children (aged 3-16 years) attending primary school in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)

School-based interventions may reduce the prevalence of dental caries (RR 0.70, favouring intervention), but the certainty of evidence is very low.

3 findings from 1 review

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean)
RR 0.70 [0.53, 0.94]
4 studies · 2968 participants
Very low
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
<2 years · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention duration <2 years
RR 0.95 [0.75, 1.21]
2 studies
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
>=2 years · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Intervention duration >=2 years
RR 0.58 [0.40, 0.84]
2 studies
GRADE not reported

Primary school-based interventions (one or more of: school health policy, oral health education, healthy school environment, access to oral health services, community involvement) vs usual practice

Caries increment, tooth index D(M)FT · Primary school children (aged 3-16 years) attending primary school in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)

Among children aged 5-8 years, net increment in DMFT was not significantly reduced (SMD -0.36); no significant subgroup difference by age.

3 findings from 1 review

Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Age 5-8 years
SMD -0.36 [-0.76, 0.04]
5 studies
GRADE not reported
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean)
SMD -0.34 [-0.69, 0.02]
5 studies · 5492 participants
Very low
Effectiveness of primary school-based interventions in improving oral health of children in low- and middle-income… 2022 All outcomes
Post-intervention; follow-up varied across studies (interventions ranged from <2 years to >=2 years and longer) · Primary schools in low- and middle-income countries (Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, Europe, eastern Mediterranean) · Age 9-12 years
SMD -0.20 [-0.44, 0.04]
1 study
GRADE not reported

Comprehensive oral health intervention (oral health education plus additional support: motivational interviewing, toothbrush/toothpaste provision, community engagement, and/or fluoride varnish/sealant application) delivered by non-dental health workers vs control (no intervention/usual care/isotonic exercise)

Caries experience at the surface level (dmfs/defs) · Children (mean age newborn to ~5.2 years) and their parents/carers

Comprehensive interventions produced a small, statistically significant reduction in surface-level caries (dmfs SMD -0.14, 95% CI -0.26 to -0.02; 10 studies; not GRADE-rated).

1 finding from 1 review

The effectiveness of behaviour change interventions delivered by non-dental health workers in promoting children's… 2022 All outcomes
Primary care and community settings; interventions delivered by non-dental health workers (multiple countries: Australia, Brazil, Canada, India, UK, USA, etc.) · Comprehensive intervention (vs oral health education only)
SMD -0.14 [-0.26, -0.02]
10 studies
GRADE not reported

Comprehensive oral health intervention (oral health education plus additional support: motivational interviewing, toothbrush/toothpaste provision, community engagement, and/or fluoride varnish/sealant application) delivered by non-dental health workers vs control (no intervention/usual care/isotonic exercise)

Caries experience · Children (mean age newborn to ~5.2 years) and their parents/carers

Comprehensive interventions produced a statistically significant reduction in tooth-level caries (dmft SMD -0.47, 95% CI -0.84 to -0.10; 4 studies; not GRADE-rated), though heterogeneity was very high.

1 finding from 1 review

The effectiveness of behaviour change interventions delivered by non-dental health workers in promoting children's… 2022 All outcomes
Primary care and community settings; interventions delivered by non-dental health workers (multiple countries: Australia, Brazil, Canada, India, UK, USA, etc.) · Comprehensive intervention (vs oral health education only)
SMD -0.47 [-0.84, -0.10]
4 studies
GRADE not reported

Gamified oral health interventions (mobile apps, serious games, augmented reality, game-based education) vs Non-digital gamified oral health interventions (card/board games, storytelling, printed aids)

Long-term behavior change and overall oral health outcomes · Children or adolescents

Digital gamified interventions appear more effective than non-digital alternatives for long-term behavior change and oral health outcomes, but the evidence is narrative and ungraded.

1 finding from 1 review

The Application of Gamification in Children's Oral Health Management: Systematic Review. 2025 All outcomes
Long-term follow-up (sustained behavior change) · Schools, dental clinics, and mobile-app user-testing environments
Digital-based interventions were more effective in fostering long-term behavior change compared with nondigital alternatives and consistently outperformed nondigital alternatives in improving oral health outcomes;…
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported

Gamified oral health interventions (mobile apps, serious games, augmented reality, game-based education) vs Conventional or traditional oral health education, or non-gamified interventions (comparator varied; several studies were single-arm/uncontrolled)

Adherence to oral hygiene routines by people with ID or their carers · Children or adolescents

Gamified interventions appear to increase children's engagement and adherence to oral hygiene routines, but the evidence is narrative and ungraded.

1 finding from 1 review

The Application of Gamification in Children's Oral Health Management: Systematic Review. 2025 All outcomes
Post-intervention (predominantly short-term; long-term follow-up in a minority of studies) · School-based settings, specialized dental clinics, and home-based environments
The regular use rate was significantly higher (72.4%) in the gamified mobile health app group than in the nongamified intervention group (48.3%) [Zolfaghari 2021]; quiz-based challenges in mobile apps encouraged higher…
Studies not reported
GRADE not reported