Non-Cochrane · prognostic · PM41886636
Prevalence and incidence of infections among people with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Fu Xue-Lei, Chen Wen-Jun, Zhao Hui-Mei, et al. · Journal of global health · 2026 · PubMed · doi:10.7189/jogh.16.04105
Findings
Population People with type 2 diabetes
42 findings
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of severe periodontitis (probing depth >=6 mm) | Pooled prevalence (%) 33.6 [23.7, 44.2] GRADE not reported 3 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of urinary tract infection Sex: female | Pooled prevalence (%) 13 [2.7, 28.4] GRADE not reported 3 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of urinary tract infection Diagnostic criteria: urine culture | Pooled prevalence (%) 14.7 [7.1, 23.2] GRADE not reported 8 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of urinary tract infection Continent: North America | Pooled prevalence (%) 8.9 [7.7, 10.1] GRADE not reported 2 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of urinary tract infection Diagnostic criteria: ICD-9 codes | Pooled prevalence (%) 9.3 [6.8, 12] GRADE not reported 3 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of urinary tract infection Continent: Asia | Pooled prevalence (%) 14.1 [0, 38.2] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of urinary tract infection Continent: Europe | Pooled prevalence (%) 16.2 [11.7, 21.1] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of urinary tract infection | Pooled prevalence (%) 9.7 [6.5, 13.5] GRADE not reported 11 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of urinary tract infection Sex: male | Pooled prevalence (%) 4.9 [3.3, 6.8] GRADE not reported 2 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of skin infection | Pooled prevalence (%) 28.6 [20.7, 37.2] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis Diagnostic criteria: clinical diagnosis (sputum culture, smear, physician diagnosis) | Pooled prevalence (%) 0.3 [0, 2.1] GRADE not reported 6 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis Diagnostic criteria: ICD-9 codes | Pooled prevalence (%) 1.6 [0, 4] GRADE not reported 2 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis Continent: Africa | Pooled prevalence (%) 1.4 [0.1, 3.2] GRADE not reported 2 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis Continent: Asia | Pooled prevalence (%) 0.8 [0, 2.5] GRADE not reported 6 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis | Pooled prevalence (%) 0.9 [0, 2.3] GRADE not reported 8 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of upper respiratory tract infection Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 553.6 [12.7, 24149.2] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of lower respiratory tract infection Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 1409.2 [1048.1, 1894.6] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of pneumonia Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 107.8 [74.6, 155.9] GRADE not reported 6 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of pneumonia Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Continent: Oceania | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 99 [81, 121] GRADE not reported 2 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of pneumonia Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Continent: Europe | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 134.7 [102.8, 176.5] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of pneumonia Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Diagnostic criteria: ICD system | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 108.3 [66.7, 176] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Diagnostic criteria: ICD system | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 23.4 [14.1, 38.9] GRADE not reported 7 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 20.1 [10.8, 37.6] GRADE not reported 11 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Diagnostic criteria: NTP guidelines | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 9 [4, 22] GRADE not reported 2 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Continent: Asia | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 22.3 [14.7, 33.8] GRADE not reported 7 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Continent: Europe | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 2.1 [1.2, 3.7] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of urinary tract infection Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 500.6 [171.3, 1462.6] GRADE not reported 11 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of urinary tract infection Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Sex: male | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 502.9 [430.6, 587.4] GRADE not reported 3 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of urinary tract infection Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Diagnostic criteria: ICD system | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 360.9 [91.1, 1429.8] GRADE not reported 6 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of urinary tract infection Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Continent: North America | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 638 [535, 762] GRADE not reported 2 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of urinary tract infection Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Sex: female | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 1379 [627.8, 3029.1] GRADE not reported 3 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of urinary tract infection Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Continent: Europe | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 795.1 [428.3, 1475.8] GRADE not reported 7 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of skin infection Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 664.1 [39.4, 11203.9] GRADE not reported 3 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of cellulitis Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts · Diagnostic criteria: ICD-diagnosed | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 119.5 [22.3, 640.3] GRADE not reported 3 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of cellulitis Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 119.5 [22.4, 638.3] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of herpes zoster Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 94.3 [39.7, 224.4] GRADE not reported 3 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of sepsis Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 54.7 [39.2, 76.4] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of gastrointestinal tract infection Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 57.1 [34.7, 94.1] GRADE not reported 3 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of otitis externa Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 143.1 [80.8, 253.4] GRADE not reported 3 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of infective endocarditis Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 1.3 [0.8, 2] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Incidence of pyogenic liver abscess Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years across incidence cohorts | Pooled incidence rate (per 10 000 person-years) 10.8 [8.3, 14] GRADE not reported 4 studies |
| Not applicable (single-group prevalence/incidence) | None | Prevalence of respiratory tract infection | Due to the lack of relevant data, we could not determine the prevalence of respiratory tract infections No studies found 0 studies |
Included primary studies 70
Open in Studies| Study | Year | Also included by | Outcomes it informs here | Trial data |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masi 2014 Association between short leukocyte telomere length, endotoxemia, and severe periodontitis in people with diabetes: a cross-sectional… PMID:24652728 | 2014 | 1 other review | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Ahmed 2009 Prevalence of cutaneous manifestations of diabetes mellitus. PMID:20524475 | 2009 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Al Qurabiy 2022 Urinary tract infection in patients with diabetes mellitus and the role of parental genetics in the emergence of the disease. PMID:36188660 | 2022 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Al-Rubeaan 2013 Prevalence of urinary tract infection and risk factors among Saudi patients with diabetes. PMID:22956119 | 2013 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Antonio-Arques 2022 Glycemic control and the risk of tuberculosis in patients with diabetes: A cohort study in a Mediterranean city. PMID:36466495 | 2022 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Banerjee 2019 Clinical Profile of Asymptomatic Bacteriuria in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: An Eastern India Perspective. PMID:31641630 | 2019 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Bartelink 1998 Infections in patients with type 2 diabetes in general practice. PMID:9699086 | 1998 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Borowczyk 2017 Urinary tract infections in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes: clinical correlates and quinolone susceptibility. PMID:28475170 | 2017 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Carey 2018 Risk of Infection in Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Compared With the General Population: A Matched Cohort Study. PMID:29330152 | 2018 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Carrondo 2020 Potentially preventable urinary tract infection in patients with type 2 diabetes - A hospital-based study. PMID:32289092 | 2020 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Chien 2023 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Periodontitis: Bidirectional Association in Population-based 15-year Retrospective Cohorts. PMID:37224522 | 2023 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Chiţă 2016 Urinary tract infections in Romanian patients with diabetes: prevalence, etiology, and risk factors. PMID:28031715 | 2017 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Dabhi 2020 Screening for prevalence of current TB disease and latent TB infection in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients attending a diabetic clinic in… PMID:32502176 | 2020 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| de Miguel-Yanes 2019 Infective endocarditis according to type 2 diabetes mellitus status: an observational study in Spain, 2001-2015. PMID:31752887 | 2019 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Ekeke 2020 Screening diabetes mellitus patients for tuberculosis in Southern Nigeria: A pilot study. PMID:32153002 | 2020 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Feleke 2024 Trends in rates of hospitalisation for infection in people with diabetes and the general population. PMID:39116262 | 2024 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Fernandes 2009 Periodontal disease status in gullah african americans with type 2 diabetes living in South Carolina. PMID:19563285 | 2009 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Ferreira 2018 Incidence and prevalence of hepatitis B in patients with diabetes mellitus in the UK: A population-based cohort study using the UK… PMID:29220868 | 2018 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Fu 2014 Risk characterization for urinary tract infections in subjects with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes. PMID:25161100 | 2014 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Fu 2021 Metformin as a potential protective therapy against tuberculosis in patients with diabetes mellitus: A retrospective cohort study in a… PMID:33550691 | 2021 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Goswami 2001 Prevalence of urinary tract infection and renal scars in patients with diabetes mellitus. PMID:11483234 | 2001 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Guignard 2014 Risk of herpes zoster among diabetics: a matched cohort study in a US insurance claim database before introduction of vaccination,… PMID:24973980 | 2014 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Hamdan 2015 Urinary tract infections and antimicrobial sensitivity among diabetic patients at Khartoum, Sudan. PMID:25896611 | 2015 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Hamilton 2013 Incidence and predictors of hospitalization for bacterial infection in community-based patients with type 2 diabetes: the fremantle… PMID:23536910 | 2013 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| He 2018 Prevalence, risk factors and microorganisms of urinary tract infections in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a retrospective study… PMID:29520146 | 2018 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Heo 2015 Tuberculosis is frequently diagnosed within 12 months of diabetes mellitus. PMID:26260832 | 2015 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Hintao 2007 Root surface and coronal caries in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. PMID:17615017 | 2007 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Hirji 2012 Incidence of genital infection among patients with type 2 diabetes in the UK General Practice Research Database. PMID:22840886 | 2012 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Hirji 2012 Incidence of urinary tract infection among patients with type 2 diabetes in the UK General Practice Research Database (GPRD). PMID:22889712 | 2012 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Kang 2014 The effects of statin use on the development of tuberculosis among patients with diabetes mellitus. PMID:24903944 | 2014 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Kim 2025 Association between weight changes and infective endocarditis in patients with diabetes: A nationwide population-based cohort study. PMID:39572764 | 2025 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Ko 2019 A cohort study of age and sex specific risk of pyogenic liver abscess incidence in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. PMID:31027123 | 2019 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Kuo 2013 Type 2 diabetes: an independent risk factor for tuberculosis: a nationwide population-based study. PMID:24236069 | 2013 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Lee 2025 Connection between Impaired Fasting Glucose or Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Sepsis: A 10-Year Observational Data from the National Health… PMID:39957312 | 2025 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Li 2020 Incidence of pulmonary tuberculosis in Chinese adults with type 2 diabetes: a retrospective cohort study in Shanghai. PMID:32444672 | 2020 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Lin 2015 Screening for pulmonary tuberculosis in type 2 diabetes elderly: a cross-sectional study in a community hospital. PMID:25572102 | 2015 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Lin 2018 Metformin is associated with a lower risk of active tuberculosis in patients with type 2 diabetes. PMID:29943489 | 2018 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Liu 2023 Yield and Efficiency of a Population-Based Mass Tuberculosis Screening Intervention Among Persons With Diabetes in Jiangsu Province, China. PMID:36869807 | 2023 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Lopez-de-Andres 2022 Sex-related disparities in the incidence and outcomes of infective endocarditis according to type 2 diabetes mellitus status in Spain,… PMID:36180922 | 2022 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Malazy 2007 Vulvovaginal candidiasis and its related factors in diabetic women. PMID:18182346 | 2007 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Masood 2016 matched by author and year (probable) | NR | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| McDonald 2014 New estimates of the burden of acute community-acquired infections among older people with diabetes mellitus: a retrospective cohort study… PMID:24341529 | 2014 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Mor 2016 Rates of Community-based Antibiotic Prescriptions and Hospital-treated Infections in Individuals With and Without Type 2 Diabetes: A… PMID:27353662 | 2016 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Movahed 2007 Increased prevalence of infectious endocarditis in patients with type II diabetes mellitus. PMID:17967715 | 2007 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Muller 2005 Increased risk of common infections in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus. PMID:16007521 | 2005 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Nichols 2017 Prevalence and incidence of urinary tract and genital infections among patients with and without type 2 diabetes. PMID:28888425 | 2017 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Nitta 2017 The number of microvascular complications is associated with an increased risk for severity of periodontitis in type 2 diabetes patients:… PMID:28129466 | 2017 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Pan 2020 Opposite effects of statins on the risk of tuberculosis and herpes zoster in patients with diabetes: A population-based cohort study. PMID:31633826 | 2020 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Pealing 2015 Risk of tuberculosis in patients with diabetes: population based cohort study using the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink. PMID:26048371 | 2015 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Pham 2018 The interaction among obesity, Type 2 diabetes mellitus, and periodontitis in Vietnamese patients. PMID:29955389 | 2018 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Poirrier 2022 Herpes Zoster Incidence and Burden in Adults With Type 2 Diabetes in the U.S.: A Retrospective Database Analysis. PMID:36149780 | 2022 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Preshaw 2010 Compromised periodontal status in an urban Sri Lankan population with type 2 diabetes. PMID:20653819 | 2010 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Pumerantz 2017 Standardized screening for periodontitis as an integral part of multidisciplinary management of adults with type 2 diabetes: an… PMID:28761663 | 2017 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Qiu 2017 Incident rate and risk factors for tuberculosis among patients with type 2 diabetes: retrospective cohort study in Shanghai, China. PMID:28449358 | 2017 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Rasid 2020 Prevalence and factors associated with cutaneous manifestations of type 2 diabetes mellitus DOI:10.5603/dk.2020.0049 | 2020 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Romano 1998 Skin lesions in diabetes mellitus: prevalence and clinical correlations. PMID:9597379 | 1998 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Saleh 2020 Diabetes Mellitus and Periapical Abscess: A Cross-sectional Study. PMID:32827508 | 2020 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Sasmaz 2004 matched by author and year (probable) | NR | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Silva 2010 Periodontitis in individuals with diabetes treated in the public health system of Belo Horizonte, Brazil. PMID:20683560 | 2010 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Sorescu 2024 Characteristics of Urinary Tract Infections in Patients with Diabetes from Timișoara, Romania: Prevalence, Etiology, and Antimicrobial… PMID:39597055 | 2024 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Susanto 2011 Periodontitis prevalence and severity in Indonesians with type 2 diabetes. PMID:20932156 | 2011 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Todescan 2023 High prevalence of periodontitis in children and adolescents with type 2 diabetes. PMID:35933589 | 2023 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Tsai 2002 Glycemic control of type 2 diabetes and severe periodontal disease in the US adult population. PMID:12000341 | 2002 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Tseng 2018 Metformin Decreases Risk of Tuberculosis Infection in Type 2 Diabetes Patients. PMID:30205606 | 2018 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Wachinou 2021 Tuberculosis prevalence and associated factors among persons with diabetes mellitus after intensified case finding in three West African… PMID:34557300 | 2021 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Wang 2018 Thiazolidinediones and reduced risk of incident bacterial abscess in adults with type 2 diabetes: A population-based cohort study. PMID:29974616 | 2018 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Wang 2021 Pyogenic Liver Abscess Risk in Patients With Newly Diagnosed Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Nationwide, Population-Based Cohort Study. PMID:34055845 | 2021 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Wilke 2015 Epidemiology of urinary tract infections in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients: An analysis based on a large sample of 456,586 German T2DM… PMID:26476473 | 2015 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Wu 2021 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Increases Peritonsillar Abscess Susceptibility: Real-World Evidence. PMID:33541035 | 2021 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
| Yu 2014 Disease burden of urinary tract infections among type 2 diabetes mellitus patients in the U.S. PMID:24929797 | 2014 | this review only | not stated | not extracted yet |
Overlap with other reviews
Reviews that include the same primary studies are not independent evidence. Shared counts match studies by PMID, DOI or NCT, and otherwise by author and year (a probable match). Only the non-Cochrane dental reviews have study lists, so overlap with Cochrane reviews is not counted yet.
| Review | Shared studies | Jaccard |
|---|---|---|
| The association of periodontitis with telomere length: a meta-analysis. (2026) | 1 | 0.01 |
Review question
| Element | Planned (methods) | Found (results) |
|---|---|---|
| Population | People with type 2 diabetes in population-based samples; excluded special populations (cancer, pregnancy, postoperative, immunodeficiency) and mixed diabetes populations without an identifiable type 2 subgroup | People with type 2 diabetes (70 studies: 37 prevalence studies, sample size 40 to 293 124; 34 incidence studies, sample size 80 to 5 928 052) |
| Intervention | Not applicable (no intervention) | Not applicable (no intervention) |
| Comparison | Not applicable (no comparator) | Not applicable (no comparator) |
| Outcomes | Prevalence (percentage) and incidence (per 10 000 person-years) of clinically confirmed symptomatic infections | Pooled prevalence: severe periodontitis (n=3), urinary tract infection (n=11), skin infection (n=4), pulmonary tuberculosis (n=8). Pooled incidence per 10 000 person-years: upper and lower respiratory tract infection, pneumonia, pulmonary tuberculosis, urinary tract infection, skin infection, cellulitis, herpes zoster, sepsis, gastrointestinal tract infection, otitis externa, infective endocarditis, pyogenic liver abscess |
| Study designs | Observational studies: cross-sectional studies for prevalence and cohort studies for incidence | 37 prevalence studies and 34 incidence studies (one study contributed to both) |
| Timing | Not specified | Mean follow-up 1 to 12 years in incidence studies |